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HARPERS  LANGUAGE -SERIES. 


.PROGRESSIVE  GRAMMAR 


ENGLISH  TONGUE: 


BASED  ON  THE  RESULTS  OF  MODERN  PHILOLOGY. 


BY  PEOF.  WILLIAM  SWINTON,  A.M., 

AUTHOR  OF  "WORD-ANALYSIS,"  "WORD-BOOK,"  "RAMBLES  AMONG  WORDS,"  "CONDENSED 

HISTORY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES,"  "FIRST  LESSONS  IN  OUR  COUNTRY'S 

HISTORY,"  "  CAMPAIGNS  OF  THE  ARMY  OF  THE  POTOMAC," 

"DECISIVE  BATTLES  OF  THE  WAR,"  ETC. 


ATED. 

SYNTAX. 

'     i!j  tff  W   1    1     *      I 

ANALYSIS    AND    CONSTRUCTION. 

>3T  <f  K.        ,'J 

ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 


NEW    YORK: 
HARPER   &'  BROTHERS,    PUBLISHERS, 

FRANKLIN     SQUARE. 

1872. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1872,  by 

HARPER  &  BROTHERS, 

In  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 

' 


PREFACE. 


THE  present  course  of  English  Grammar,  forming  a  part 
of  Harper's  Language-Series,  is  embodied  in  two  books : 

1.  The  "First  Lessons  in  English;" 

2.  The  "  Progressive  English  Grammar." 

The  two  are  not  necessarily  connected ;  either  may  be 
used  by  itself.  The  "First  Lessons,"  however,  is  designed 
to  meet  the  wants  of  the  lower  classes  of  graded  schools, 
while  this  text-book  will  connect  with  the  "  First  Lessons," 
and,  at  the  same  time,  furnish  by  itself  a  complete  gram- 
matical course  for  ungraded  and  for  private  schools. 

Learning  our  mother  tongue  ought  to  be  the  most  inter- 
esting of  school  studies ;  and  yet,  for  nearly  a  century, 
countless  numbers  of  technical  grammars,  all  modeled  aft- 
er Lindley  Murray,  have  been,  by  turns,  the  object  of  aver- 
sion to  successive  generations  of  school  children.  This  is 
not  to  be  wondered  at.  The  traditional  rules  of  syntax, 
and  the  time -honored  nomenclature  of  etymology,  have 
come  down  to  us  a  heritage  from  the  elder  grammarians, 
who,  writing  before  philology  became  a  science,  put  forth 
all  their  strength  in  a  too  successful  endeavor  to  subject 
our  simple  and  peculiar  English  speech  to  the  vassalage  of 
Latin  forms. 

The  introduction,  some  thirty  years  ago,  of  the  method 


av  PREFACE. 

of  Sentential  ANALYSIS,  devised  by  the  German  philologist 
Becker,  and  adapted  to  American  school  use  in  the  meri- 
torious works  of  Professor  Greene  and  others,  marks  the 
only  considerable  innovation,  in  this  country,  on  the  Mur- 
ray system.  The  new  doctrine  excited  great  intefest,  and 
soon  ran  into  a  wide  currency.  When  we  consider,  how- 
ever, that  Analysis  is  the  syntax  of  English  to  no  greater  a 
degree  than  it  is  the  syntax  of  any  other  speech ;  that  it  is, 
in  point  of  fact,  general  or  universal  syntax,  it  is  not  strange 
that  it  failed  to  realize  the  brilliant  results  claimed  for  it 
by  its  early  champions,  and  that  of  late  it  is  falling  out  of 
favor  with  j  udicious  teachers,  who  find  that  Analysis,  while 
a  curious  and  interesting  study,  and  not  without  its  value 
as  a  means  of  mental  discipline,  fails  to  accomplish  the  pro- 
fessed design  of  English  grammar,  which  design  now  is, 
and  always  has  been,  to  teach  "  the  art  of  speaking  and 
writing  the  English  language  with  propriety." 

In  the  mean  time,  in  the  results  of  modern  linguis- 
tic study  and  research,  materials  have  been  rapidly  accu- 
mulating, from  which  methods  of  treatment  ought  to  be 
developed  very  different  from  the  complications  of  Anglo- 
Latin  syntax  on  the  one  hand,  and  from  the  abstractions 
of  Analysis  on  the  other.  If  the  present  work  shall  be 
found  to  possess  any  merit,  that  merit  will  be  due  to  the 
fact  that  modern  philology  has  made  English  grammar 
possible  by  showing  us  what  the  English  speech  really  is. 

In  this  text-book,  of  the  four  mediaeval  "  branches"  of 
grammar,  two  have  been  lopped  off — to  wit.  Orthography 
and  Prosody.  These  do  not  properly  belong  to  English 
grammar,  and,  indeed,  they  came  into  the  grammatical 
horn-books  at  a  period  when  the  awful  mysteries  of  "gram- 
mairie"  were  ranked  with  the  black  arts.  This  exclusion 


PREFACE. 


leaves  for  treatment  the  two  proper  departments  of  gram- 
mar— Etymology  and  Syntax ;  to  which  have  been  added 
Analysis  and  Construction,  and  English  Composition. 

I. 

In  the  treatment  of  ETYMOLOGY  three  prominent  points 
will  be  noticed : 

1.  A  graduated  method  of  unfolding  the  parts  of  speech, 
which  are   shown   upon  three   successive   and  ascending 
planes.    The  parts  of  speech  are  first  taken  up  and  defined 
merely.     Then  all  the  parts  of  speech  are  again  taken  up, 
and  their  subdivisions  set  forth.     Lastly,  all  the  parts  of 
speech  are  taken  up  for  the  third  time,  and  their  inflections 
(if  they  possess  any)  are  exhibited.    The  superiority  of  this 
plan  of  gradual  approach  over  the  old  way  of  crowding 
every  thing  in  a  confused  mass  of  bewildering. nomencla- 
ture upon  the  child  must  be  evident  on  even  a  cursory  ex- 
amination. 

2.  The  brief,  simple,  and  practical  definitions  of  the  parts 
of  speech  and  of  grammatical  terms  in  general.    Gramma- 
rians, it  is  true,  have  been  in  the  habit  of  magnifying  the 
importance  of  abstract  logical  definitions,  constructed  with 
all  the  subtlety  of  the  schoolmen.     But  is  it  not  manifest 
that  in  an  art  like  grammar  the  sole  end  of  definition  is  to 
teach  uses  ?    Now  it  is  believed  that  the  school-boy,  by  the 
aid  of  such  simple  (though,  it  is  true,  empirical)  definitions 
as  NOUNS  NAME  THINGS,  VERBS  MAKE  STATEMENTS,  will  learn 
to  detect  nouns  and  verbs  much  sooner  than  he  possibly 
could,  were  he  ever  so  cunning  in  the  repetition  of  wire- 
drawn definitions  that  may,  indeed,  be  theoretically  ex- 
haustive, but  that  are  practically  unintelligible. 

3.  The  historical  treatment  of  English  inflections.     The 


VI  PREFACE. 

modern  study  of  Anglo-Saxon  lias  thrown  a  flood  of  light 
on  the  forms  and  idioms  of  the  English  tongue.  We  ob- 
tain a  satisfactory  knowledge  of  our  few  fragments  of 
English  inflection  only  by  learning  how  those  inflections 
arose.  And  here,  again,  grammarians  are  chargeable  with 
having  misapplied  a  great  deal  of  ingenuity  in  trying  to 
explain  d  priori  (by  pure  reasoning  and  logic)  facts  that 
can  be  explained  solely  by  the  history  of  our  speech.  In 
the  present  text-book  the  aim  has  been  to  introduce  the 
more  illustrative  points  of  English  philology  stripped  of 
their  scientific  dress. 

II. 

The  treatment  of  Syntax  in  this  text-book  is  probably 
what  will  most  challenge  attention. 

In  this  division  of  the  subject  a  marked  departure  from 
the  old  methods  was  found  absolutely  indispensable.  The 
time-honored  twenty-six  rules  of  Murray's  Grammar  are  an 
incongruous  assemblage  of  mixed  definitions  and  abstrac- 
tions, imitated  from  Latin  syntax,  and  having  as  their  chief 
end  to  teach  grammatical  parsing,  which  is  simply  grammar 
run  to  seed.  How  many  a  thoughtful  teacher  has  been 
rudely  disenchanted  by  discovering  that  a  boy  may  glibly 
parse  Young's  Night  Thoughts,  or  Pollock's  Course  of  Time, 
strictly  in  accordance  with  the  t\venty-six  rules,  and  yet  be 
profoundly  ignorant  of  practical  English ! 

The  author  bases  his  treatment  of  English  syntax  on 
the  theory  that  the  object  of  the  school  study  of  grammar 
is  to  furnish  school-boys  and  school-girls  with  such  an  avail- 
able outfit  of  knowledge  in  applied  syntax-as  shall  give  them 
a  fair  mastery  of  the  USE  of  English  in  speaking  and  in 
writing.  Accordingly,  he  found  it  needful  to  go  through 


PREFACE.  Vil 

syntax,  and  carefully  to  separate  the  abstract  maxims  used 
in  disposing  of  words  from  those  principles  that  are  of  prime 
importance,  because  they  may  be  violated  in  the  actual 
forms  of  words.  This  separation  is  marked  by  dividing 
the  syntax  of  each  part  of  speech  into— 

1.  How  to  dispose  of  the  part  of  speech. 

2.  Its  practical  syntax. 

Of  the  latter  —  PRACTICAL  SYNTAX — the  treatment  has 
been  made  quite  full,  the  anthor  feeling  that  he  could  not 
conscientiously  avoid  fairly  meeting  the  numerous  difficul- 
ties that  arise  in  writing  modern  English.  At  thfrsame 
time,  as  the  principles  are  developed  inductively,  from  co- 
pious illustrations  very  fully  explained,  it  is  believed  that 
they  will  find  firm  lodgment  in  the  intelligence,  and,  by 
consequence,  in  the  memory  of  the  pupil. 

III. 

A  clear  system  of  Sentential  Analysis,  freed  from  need- 
less complications  and  refinements,  has  been  reduced  to  its 
appropriate  place  and  space  in  the  grammatical  course. 
Moreover,  side  by  side  with  the  principles  of  Analysis  will 
be  found  the  application  of  those  principles  to  Synthesis, 
or  Construction.  The  method  of  sentence  -  building  here 
given  has  stood  the  test  of  the  class-room,  and  the  exer- 
cises will  be  found  both  to  make  Analysis  itself  intelligible 
and  to  lay  the  foundation  for  Composition. 

"iv. 

As  one  of  the  professed  objects  of  English  Grammar  is 
to  teach  the  art  of  writing  good  English,  the  last  division 
of  the  book  comprises  practical  exercises  in  Composition- 


Vlll  PREFACE. 

writing.  Here  an  effort  has  been  made  to  bring  the  di- 
rections and  the  exercises  down  to  the  average  capacity 
of  the  children  in  the  public  schools.  The  attention  of 
teachers  is  particularly  called  to  this  part  of  the  book. 

There  seems  to  be  a  general  desire  among  thinking  teach- 
ers for  a  clearer,  simpler,  and  more  objective  method  of 
teaching  English  than  that  in  common  use — for  a  book 
more  in  harmony  with  modern  English  philology.  It  will 
be  for  the  great  body  of  professional  men  and  women, 
whose  plaint  at  the  fruitlessness  of  old-time  grammar  has 
filled  Ae  educational  journals  during  the  last  decade,  to 
say  whether  this  text-book  supplies  the  desideratum ;  but 
the  author  at  least  ventures  to  bespeak  for  it  the  favorable 
presumption  that  attaches  to  the  newest  treatment  of  a  pro- 
gressive science. 

WILLIAM  SWINTON. 


The  acknowledgments  of  the  author  are  especially  due 
to  the  following  works : 

Dalgleish's  English  Grammar :  Edinburg.  [The  simple  method  of  defining 
the  Parts  of  Speech  found  in  this  work  have  been,  in  the  main,  followed  in  the 
present  text-book.] 

Ernest  Adams's  Elements  of  the  English  Language :  London. 

Angus's  Hand-book  of  English :  London. 

Morrell's  Grammar  and  Analysis  :  London. 

Higginson's  English  Grammar :  London. 

Collier's  Grammar  of  the  English  Language  :  Edinburg. 

Chambers's  English  Grammar :  EdinbftYg. 

Bain's  English  Grammar :  London. 

Marsh's  Lectures  :  New  York. 


CONTENTS. 


Page 

EXPLANATORY 1 

PAET  I. 

ETYMOLOGY. 
CHAPTER  I. 

Classification 5 

CHAPTER  II. 

Subdivisions  of  the  Parts  of  Speech n 

1.  THE  NOUN 11 

2.  THE  PRONOUN 13 

3.  THE  ADJECTIVE 17 

4.  THE  VERB 20 

5.  THE  ADVERB 23 

G.  THE  PREPOSITION : 26 

7.  THE  CONJUNCTION 27 

CHAPTER  III. 

Inflection 30 

1.  THE  NOUN 30 

I.  Number 30 

II.  Case 34 

III.  Gender 37 

2.  THE  PRONOUN 39 

I.  Personal  Pronouns 39 

II.  Eelative  Pronouns 41 

III.  Demonstrative  Pronouns 41 

3.  THE  ADJECTIVE  '. 42 

4.  THE  ADVERB 44 

5.  THE  VERB 45 

I.  Tense 45 

II.  Person  and  Number 46 

III.  Mood 47 

IV.  Voice 51 

V.  Conjugation. 51 

VI.  Forms  of  the  Tenses 56 

VII.  Irregular  Verbs 60 


X  CONTENTS. 

PART  II. 

SYNTAX. 

Pago 

^.Syntax  of  the  Verb : 74 

I.  How  to  Parse  the  Verb 74 

II.  Practical  Syntax  of  the  Verb 76 

2.  Syntax  of  the  Noun 84 

I.  How  to  Dispose  of  Nouns 84 

II.  Practical  Syntax  of  the  Noun 88 

3.  Syntax  of  the  Pronoun-  '•• 91 

I.  How  to  Dispose  of  Pronouns 91 

II.  Practical  Syntax  of  the  Pronoun 91 

4.  Syntax  of  Adjectives '. . . .  104 

I.  How  to  Parse  Adjectives m 104 

II.  Practical  Syntax  of  the  Adjective 105 

5.  Syntax  of  the  Adverb ios 

I.  How  to  Parse  Adverbs 108 

II.  Practical  Syntax  of  the  Adverb 109 

6.  Syntax  of  Prepositions us 

I.  How  to  Parse  Prepositions 115 

II.  Practical  Syntax  of  the  Preposition 116 

7.  Syntax  of  the  Conjunction 119 

I.  How  to  Parse  Conjunctions 119 

II.  Practical  Syntax  of  the  Conjunction 120 

8.  Syntax  of  Moods  and  Tenses 124 

PAET  III. 

ANALYSIS  AND  CONSTRUCTION. 
CHAPTER  I. 

Sentences 134 

Elements  of  a  Sentence 1 36 

What  the  Subject  may  be 137 

What  the  Predicate  may  be 1 38 

How  the  Subject  may  be  enlarged 1 39 

Expansion  of  the  Subject 140 

How  the  Predicate  may  be  enlarged 141 

Expansion  of  the  Predicate 142 

CHAPTER  II. 

Analysis  of  Sentences H3 

1 .  The  Simple  Sentence  analyzed 143 

2.  Sentence-Building — the  Simple  Sentence 145 


CONTENTS.  XI 

CHAPTER  III.  Page 

The  Complex  Sentence HO 

1 .  The  Complex  Sentence  analyzed 149 

2.  Sentence-Building — the  Complex  Sentence .'*.  156 

• 

CHAPTER  IV. 

The  Compound  Sentence IGO 

1.  The  Compound  Sentence  analyzed 160 

2.  Sentence-Building — the  Compound  Sentence 165 

PAET  IV. 

ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 

1.  Suggestions  for  Teachers 179 

2.  Suggestions  for  Pupils 180 

3.  Review  of  Capitalizing  and  Punctuation 182 

4.  Exercises  in  Composition- Writing 184 

5.  Abstracts  from  Memory 188 

6.  Letter-Writing 190 

7.  Turning  Poetry  into  Prose 193 

APPENDIX. 

Conjugation  of  a  Regular  Verb 199 

Synopsis  of  the  Verb  Love 201 

Synopsis  of  a  Verb  conjugated 202 

Anglo-Saxon  Paradigms .- 203 

Saxon  Verb * 205 

Comparative  Table  of  Tenses  in  English,  Latin,  French,  and  German. .  206 

The  Infinitive  or  Verbal  in  -ing 207 


OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 


• 

ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


NOTE  FOR  TEACHEHS. — It  is  not  intended  that  this  grammar  should 
be  uniformly  got  by  rote.     Some  parts,  of  course,  must  be  so  learnt ;  but^ 
grammar  in  general  is  to  be  learnt  by  mind. 

1.  The  English  language  is  called  our  mother  tongue  be- 
cause it  is  our  native  speech.     We  begin  to  learn  it  as  soon 
as  we  begin  to  talk. 

2.  We  gain  our  first  knowledge  of  our  language  by  hear- 
ing those  around  us  speak  it.     T$iis  may  be  called  natural 
knowledge  of  our  language. 

3.  The  pupils  who  begin  to  study  this  book  already  know 
a  good  deal  about  English.     They  have  a  stock  of  words, 
and  know  how  to  put  these  words  together  into  sentences. 
But  they  can  not  be  sure  that  they  are  using  words  prop- 
erly and  framing  sentences  correctly  unless  they  know  the 
rules  of  the  English  language.     A  knowledge  based  on  these 
rules  may  be  called  a  grammatical  knowledge  of  our  tongue. 

4.  The  study  that  teaches  the  correct  use  of  the  English 
language  in  speaking  and  in  writing  is  called  English  Gram- 
mar. 

5.  All  language  is  composed  of  sentences,  and  all  sen- 
tences are  made  up  of  words.     Hence  arise  the  two  grand 
divisions  of  English  Grammar : 

I.  Etymology — treating  of  words  by  themselves. 
II.  Syntax — treating  of  words  combined  in  sentences. 

NOTE. — The  old  division  of  English  Grammar  was  into  1 1  orthography, 
etymology,  syntax,  and  prosody."  But  orthography,  which  is  a  matter 
rather  of  rote  than  of  rule,  belongs  to  the  speller  and  the  dictionary,  while 
prosody  is  properly  a  part  of  English  composition. 

A 


2  EXPLANATORY. 

6.  Etymology  treats  of— 

I.  The  arrangement  of  words  in  classes;  and — 
II.  The  changes  that  words  undergo  to  express  different 
relations. 

The  first  may  be  called  classification;  tie  second,  inflec- 
tion. 

It  should  be  distinctly  understood  that  etymology  treats  of  the  gram- 
matical changes  of  words,  and  of  no  other  kind  of  change.  It  has  nothing 
to  do  with  the  derivation  of  words :  that  belongs  to  historical  etymology, 
in  contradistinction  to  grammatical  etymology.  Thus  the  change  from 
'  sweet'  to  '  sweeter'  is  a  matter  of  grammatical  etymology ;  the  change 
from  '  farm'  to  '  farmer'  is  a  matter  of  historical  etymology. 

...     7.  Words  are  arranged  in  classes,  according  to  the  functions 
they  perform,  or  the  work  they  do,  in  sentences.     Thus — 
All  words  used  to  make  statements  are  put  in  one  class. 
All  words  used  to  name  things,  in  another. 
All  words  used  to  describe  things,  in  a  third. 

8.  The  several  classes  of  words  are  called  Parts  of  Speech. 

9.  Now,  let  us  see  what  is  meant  by  inflection.     Take  the 
naming  word  river  and  the  asserting  word  flows,  and  you  may 
make  the  sentence  '  The  river  flows.'     But  suppose  you  wish 
to  denote  more  than  one  river,  you  change  the  form  of  the 
word  to  rivers.     The   sentence  now  becomes  '  The  rivers 
flow.'     And  here,  again,  you  have  changed  the  form  of  the 
word,  flows  by  leaving  off  s. 

10.  Suppose  you  wish  to  state,  not  that  the  river  is  now 
flowing,  but  that  it  was  flowing  at  some  time  in  the  past :  you 
say  'The  river  flowed'     Here  you  have  changed  the  form 
of  flow  by  adding  ed. 

11.  Take  the  describing  word  deep  and  the  naming  word 
river.     Now  suppose  you  wish  to  state  that  a  certain  other 
river  had  greater  depth  than  one  just  named :  you  will  say 
CA  deeper  river.'     Here  you  have  changed  the  form  of  the 
word  '  deep'  by  adding  er.     These  are  examples  of  the  kind 
of  changes  in  words  that  etymology  treats  of,  and  these 
changes  are  called  inflections. 

12.  Syntax  treats  of  the  structure  of  sentences,  with  ref- 
erence to  the  agreement,  government,  and  .arrangement  of 
words. 


EXPLANATORY.  3 

ILLUSTRATION   OF   AGREEMENT. 

(1.)  If  we  say  'The  mountains  is  high,'  we  speak  un- 
grammatically ;  that  is,  we  violate  syntax,  because — for  a 
reason  which  the  pupil  will  learn  hereafter — the  form  of  the 
word  '  is'  does  not  agree  with  the  word  '  mountains.' 

ILLUSTRATION   OF   GOVERNMENT. 

(2.)  Take  the  two  sentences, c  They  were  led  on  by  Mam- 
mon ;'  '  Mammon  led  them  on.'  The  word  them  in  the 
second  sentence  is  a  change  of  form  of  the  word  they.  Why 
does  it  take  this  form  ?  Because — for  a  reason  to  be  learn-] 
ed  hereafter — the  word  '  led'  compels  it  to  take  that  form, 
governs  it  in  that  form. 

ILLUSTRATION   OF   ARRANGEMENT. 

(3.)  The  sentence, '  Wanted,  a  young  man  to  take  care 
of  horses  of  a  Christian  disposition,'  is  an  absurdity,  be- 
cause the  faulty  placing  of  the  words  (of  a  Christian  dis- 
position' makes  them  qualify  horses  instead  of  man,  which 
they  were  meant  to  qualify.  The  arrangement  is  wrong. 

13.  Whenever  we  express  a  thought  we  use  a  sentence. 
Every  sentence  must  have  a  subject  and  a  predicate. 

1  Beautiful  flowers  in  the  garden.'  These  words  do  not  make  a  sen- 
tence, because  they  do  not  express  a  thought.  But  when  we  say  '  Beau- 
tiful flowers  bloom  in  the  garden'  we  express  a  thought,  and  the  assemblage 
of  words  used  to  express  it  is  a  sentence. 

14.  The  Predicate  is  the  particular  part  of  a  sentence  that 
makes  a  statement. 

The  Subject  is  that  about  which  a  statement  is  made. 

'Haste  makes  waste'  is  a  sentence.  'Haste'  is  the  subject;  'makes 
waste'  is  the  predicate. 

15.  Sometimes  a  great  many  words  are  used  in  expressing 
the  subject  and  the  predicate,  but  there  will  always  be  some 
one  term  that  we  are  speaking  about,  and  some  other  term  that 
makes  the  statement. 

SUBJECT.  PREDICATE. 

The  young  and  gallant  Sydney      died  on  the  field  of  battle  at  Zutphen. 

The  person  we  are  speaking  about  in  this  sentence  is  marked  by  the 
term  or  name  'Sydney,'  but  several  other  words,  the,  young,  gallant,  are 
used  along  with  that  term  to  describe  it.  What  we  say  about  '  Sydney' 
is  mainly  expressed  by  the  term  'died, 'but  other  words  are  connected 
with  it  to  show  where  he  died. 


4  EXPLANATORY. 

16.  The  particular  term  that  forms  the  subject  will  always 
be  what  is  called  a  noun,  or  something  having  the  force  of  a 
noun ;  the  particular  term  forming  the  predicate  will  always 
be  what  is  called  a  verb. 

17.  The  noun  and  the  verb  are  the  two  principal  Parts  of 
Speech.     They  make  the  frame-work  of  every  sentence. 

18.  The  various  sorts  of  words  used  along  with  the  subject 
and  with  the  predicate  make  up  the  other  Parts  of  Speech, 
and  these  are  fully  explained  in  the  next  chapter,  on  Class- 
ification. 


The  English  Language  has  been  growing  for  more  than  a  thousand  years. 
It  is  called  '  English'  from  the  word  Angles,  the  name  of  a  tribe  of  Germans 
who,  with  the  Saxons  and  other  German  tribes,  settled  in  Britain  about  the 
5th  century  A.D.  The  language  that  was  spoken  by  this  people  is  called 
Anglo-Saxon.  It  was  quite  unlike  our  present  English,  but  it  is  the  basis 
of  our  speech,  furnishing  the  larger  part  (nearly  three  quarters,  perhaps) 
of  our  customary  words,  and  the  grammatical  frame-work  of  the  whole  lan- 
guage. Anglo-Saxon  was  largely  influenced  by  the  French  language,  spoken 
by  the  Normans,  who  conquered  England  in  the  IHh  century.  In  the  15th 
and  16th  centuries  it  received  a  very  great  number  of  words  from  Latin 
and  from  Greek,  and  subsequently  from  other  sources.  Thus  we  see  that 
the  English  language  is  a  combination  of  many  tongues.  By  the  time  of 
Shakspeare,  in  the  16th  century,  it  had  grown  into  nearly  its  present  form. 
English  is  a  noble  language.  It  is  now  spoken  by  nearly  one  hundred  mil- 
lions of  people.  It  is  the  language  of  the  United  States  and  of  British  Amer- 
ica, of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  of  Australia  and  New  Zealand,  and  it  is 
spoken  in  South  Africa,  in  India,  and  elsewhere.  To  have  a  free  and  accu- 
rate use  of  it  is  one  of  the  finest  of  accomplishments,  and  such  a  use  the 
study  of  Grammar  should  give. 


PART  I. 

ETYMOLOGY. 

19.  Etymology  treats  of  words  individually  considered, 
and  consists  of  two  parts — classification  and  inflection. 

CHAPTER  I. 

CLASSIFICATION. 
THE   PARTS    OF   SPEECH   DEFINED. 

20.  Words  are  arranged  in  classes,  according  to  the  func- 
tions they  perform,  or  the  work  they  do,  in  sentences. 

The  English  Language  is  made  up  of  a  stock  of  words  called  its  vocab- 
ulary. A  complete  English  dictionary  contains  upward  of  100,000  words ; 
nevertheless,  it  is  found  that  the  whole  stock  of  English  words  can  be  as- 
sorted into  a  very  few  kinds.  Thus  all  words  used  to  assert  are  put  in  one 
class  •  all  words  used  to  name  things,  in  another ;  all  words  used  to  describe 
things,  in  a  third,  etc. 

21.  There  are  eight  separate  classes'of  words.    These  class- 
es are  called  The  Parts  of  Speech. 

22.  The  Parts  of  Speech  are: 

1.  THE  NOUN.  5.  THE  ADVERB. 

2.  THE  PRONOUN.  6.  THE  PREPOSITION. 

3.  THE  ADJECTIVE.  7.  THE  CONJUNCTION. 

4.  THE  VERB.  8.  THE  INTERJECTION. 

23.  DEFINITION  I.    Nouns  name  things;  as,  A  violet  'neath 
a  mossy  stone. 

Noun,  from  the  Latin  nomen,  a  name,  is  the  name  of  any  thing  that  we 
can  perceive  by  means  of  (1)  the  senses  or  of  (2)  the  understanding.  Ev- 
ery thing  we  think  about  or  speak  about — person,  place,  object,  action,  or 
thought — must  have  a  name,  and  every  name  is  a  NOUN. 

Exercise  1. 
Pick  out  the  NOUNS. 

1.  The  snow  was  deep  on  the  hills  last  week.  2.  The  sun  rises  in  the 
morning  and  sets  in  the  evening.  3.  The  battle  of  Gettysburg  was  fought  in 
Pennsylvania.  4.  Wellington  defeated  Napoleon  at  Waterloo.  5.  Skating 
on  the  ice  is  fine  fun  for  boys.  6.  Warren  was  noted  for  the  sweetness  of  his 
disposition.  7.  Knowledge  is  power. 


6  ETYMOLOGY. 

24.  DEFINITION  II.    Pronouns  stand  for  Nouns;  as, Charles 
went  to  Paris  with  his  mother,  and  he  came  back  without  her. 

(a)  The  word  Pronoun  (Latin  pro  and  nomen)  means  for  or  instead  q/*a 
noun.  The  use  of  pronouns  is  to  prevent  the  repetition  of  nouns,  and  to 
make  speaking  and  writing  more  rapid  and  less  encumbered  with  words. 

(6)  The  principal  pronouns  are :  /,  You,  He,  She,  It,  We,  They,  My,  Your. 
His,  Her,  Its,  Him,  Our,  Us,  Their,  Them,  Who,  Whose,  Whom,  Which, 
That,  What. 

Exercise  2. 

A. 

Pick  out  the  PRONOUNS,  and  say  for  what  Nouns  they  stand. 

1 .  The  Arabs  are  able  to  catch  the  ostrich  only  when  they  have  tired  it 

some  days  by  constant  chase.     2.  Men  find  plants  where  they  least  expect 

them.     3.  A  boy  who  is  always  grumbling  will  lose  the  friends  that  he  has. 

4.  I  hope  you  will  come  to  see  us  soon.     5.  Who  goes  there  ? 

B. 

Write  PKONOUNS  for  the  NOUNS  printed  in  Italics. 

1.  The  master  told  the  two  brothers  to  tell  the  two  brothers'  father  that  the 

father  must  get  the  two  brothers  new  books.     2.  The  king  took  the  hand  of 

the  king's  earliest  friend,  and  pressed  the  hand  to  the  king's  heart.     3.  Philip's 

mother  said  to  Philip,  'Philip  must  keep  Philip's  clothes  in  better  order.' 

5.  When  the  ostrich's  pursuer  approaches  the  ostrich,  the  ostrich  sticks  the 
ostrich's  head  in  the  sand. 

25.  DEFINITION  III.    Adjectives  describe  or  limit  things; 
as,  The  early  primrose,  The  distant  hills,  The  three  swans,  The 
open  country. 

The  literal  meaning  of  Adjective  (Latin  ad,  to,  and  jectus,  thrown  or 
placed)  is  placed  alongside  of.  Adjectives  are  placed  alongside  of  nouns 
for  the  purpose  of  describing  or  qualifying  them,  or  of  showing  the  extent 
of  their  signification. 

Exercise  3. 
Pick  out  the  ADJECTIVES,  and  name  the  things  they  describe 

or  limit. 

1.  Silk-worms  are  curious  and  industrious  little  creatures.  2.  Good  books 
deserve  a  careful  perusal.  3.  They  called  him  a  true  friend  and  a  noble  foe. 
4.  Many  ships  were  lost  in  the  storm.  5.  There  are  seven  days  in  a  week. 

6.  The  long,  long,  weary  days  are  past. 

7.  The  way  was  long,  the  wind  was  cold, 
The  minstrel  was  infirm  and  old. 

26.  DEFINITION  IV.     Verbs  make  statements ;  as,  The  wild 
cataract  leaps  in  glory ;  The  revolution  of  the  earth  on  its  axis 
causes  the  succession  of  day  and  night. 


THE   PARTS    OF    SPEECH.  7 

(a)  The  essential  idea  of  the  Verb  is  that  of  asserting  or  telling.     The 
term  Verb  (Latin  verbum,  a  word)  means  word,  and  this  part  of  speech  is 
so  called  because  it  is  the  word,  the  word  which  gives  life  to  a  sentence ; 
in  fact,  no  string  of  words  can  make  a  sentence  unless  one  of  the  words  is 
a  verb. 

(b)  The  definition  of  Verb  may  be  expanded  thus;  "A  verb  is  a  word 
by  means  of  which  we  assert  (1)  what  any  thing  does;  (2)  what  is  done-to 
it ;  or  (3)  in  what  state  It  exists." 

Exercise  4. 

A. 

Pick  out  the  VEKBS,  and  tell  their  SUBJECTS. 
My  father  left  me  a  considerable  estate,  the  best  part  of  which  I  spent  in 
debauchery  during  my  youth.  But  I  perceived  my  error,  and  reflected  that 
riches  are  perishable,  and  are  quickly  consumed  by  such  ill  managers  as  my- 
self. I  further  considered  that  by  my  irregular  way  of  living  I  wretchedly 
misspent  my  time,  which  is  the  most  valuable  thing  in  the  world.  I  remem- 
bered the  saying  of  the  great  Solomon,  which  I  had  frequently  heard  from 
my  father,  "that  death  is  more  tolerable  than  poverty."  Being  struck  with 
these  reflections,  I  collected  the  remains  of  my  furniture,  and  sold  all  my 
patrimony  by  public  auction  to  the  highest  bidder.  Chen  I  entered  into  a 
contract  with  some  merchants  who  traded  by  sea ;  I  took  the  advice  of  such 
as  I  thought  most  capable  to  give  it  to  me,  and,  resolving  to  improve  what 
money  I  had,  I  went  to  Balsora,  and  embarked  with  several  merchants  on 
board  a  ship  which  we  jointly  fitted  out. — Arabian  Nights. 

B. 

The  red  light  shone  through  the  open  door, 

From  the  round,  declining  sun, 
And  fantastic  shadows  all  about 

On  the  dusty  floor  were  thrown, 
As  the  factory  clock  tolled  the  hour  of  five, 

And  the  school  was  almost  done. 


The  mingled  hum  of  the  busy  town 

Rose  faint  from  the  lower  plain, 
And  we  saw  the  steeple  over  the  trees, 

With  its  motionless  golden  vane, 
And  heard  the  cattle's  musical  low, 

And  the  rustle  of  standing  grain. 

27.  DEFINITION  Y.     Adverbs  describe  actions  and  qualities; 
as,  I  have  often  climbed  very  steep  hills. 

(a)  The  literal  meaning  of  Adverb  is  added  to  a  verb,  because  the  Ad- 
verb is  most  frequently  the  adjunct  of  a  verb. 

(6)  Adverbs  describe  actions  by  showing  how,  when,  or  where  they  are 
done.  For  this  purpose  they  are  joined  to  verbs. 

(c)  Adverbs  describe  qualities  by  showing  how  much  of  them  is  possessed. 
For  this  purpose  they  are  joined  to  adjectives ;  as,  Very  little  money. 

(c?)  Adverbs  also  limit  adverbial  descriptions  by  showing  how  much  of 
them  is  applicable.  For  this  purpose  they  are  joined  to  other  adverbs  ;  as, 
He  speaks  most  fluently,  and  writes  very  correctly. 


ETYMOLOGY. 

Exercise  5. 
Pick  out  the  ADVERBS,  and  tell  what  words  they  describe. 

Softly,  peacefully  lay  her  to  rest, 

Place  the  turf  lightly  on  her  young  breast  • 

Gently,  solemnly  bend  o'er  the  bed 

Where  ye  have  pillowed  thus  softly  her  head. 

When  I  was  a  little  advanced  into  the  island  I  saw  an  old  man,  who  ap- 
peared very  weak  and  feeble.  He  sat  upon  the  bank  of  a  stream,  and  at  first 
I  took  him  to  be  one  who  had  been  shipwrecked  like  myself.  I  quickly  went 
towards  him,  and  respectfully  saluted  him,  but  he  only  bowed  his  head.  I 
asked  him  what  he  did  there,  but  instead  of  answering  me  he  made  a  sign 
for  me  to  take  him  up  on  my  back  and  carry  him  over  the  brook.  I  believed 
him  really  to  stand  in  need  of  my  help,  so  I  took  him  up  on  my  back,  and, 
having  soon  carried  him  over,  I  bid  him  get  down ;  but,  instead  of  that  (which 
I  laugh  at  heartily  every  time  I  think  of  it),  the  old  man  clasped  his  legs 
nimbly  about  my  neck,  and  held  my  throat  so  tightly  that  I  really  thought  he 
would  have  strangled  me. — Arabian  Nights. 

28.  DEFINITION  VI.    Prepositions  link  Nouns  and  Pronouns 
to  other  words. 

She  is  f SLY  from  the  land  where  her  young  hero  sleeps, 

And  lovers  are  round  her  sighing $ 
But  coldly  she  turns  from  their  gaze  and  weeps, 

.For  her  heart  in  his  grave  is  lying. 

(a)  The  preposition  from  links  the  noun  land  to  the  adverb  far  ;  round 
links  the  pronoun  her  to  sighing  ;  from  links  the  noun  gaze  to  turns ;  in 
links  the  noun  grave  to  is  lying. 

(6)  The  word  Preposition  means  a  placing  before  (Latin  pre  andpositio), 
and  is  so  called  because  it  is  placed  before  a  noun  or  a  pronoun. 

(c)  Prepositions  may  be  known  by  observing  that  they  are  closely  at- 
tached to  their  nouns,  and  can  not  be  removed  from  one  part  of  the  sen- 
tence to  another  except  in  connection  with  their  nouns. 

Exercise  6. 
Pick  out  the  PREPOSITIONS* and  tell  what  words  they  link. 

1.  Indian  corn,  when  ripe  in  October,  is  gathered  in  the  field  by  men  who 
go  from  hill  to  hill  with  baskets  into  which  they  put  the  corn.  2.  The  creak- 
ing of  the  masts  was  frightful.  3.  We  gazed  with  inexpressible  pleasure  on 
those  happy  islands.  4.  It  happened  one  day,  when  going  towards  my  boat, 
I  was  exceedingly  surprised  with  the  print  of  a  man's  naked  foot  on  the 
shore.  5.  Who  is  she  that  comes  clothed  in  a  robe  of  green  ?  6.  Heaven 
from  all  creatures  hides  the  book  of  fate. 

29.  DEFINITION  VII.     Conjunctions   connect  statements; 
as,  Cheerful  he  seemed,  and  gentleness  he  loved ;  He  chid 
their  wanderings,  but  relieved  their  pain. 

(a)  Conjunctions  often  seem  to  join  only  two  words,  but  the  connection 
is  really  between  statements.  Thus,  in  the  sentence  Charles  and  Mary 


THE    PARTS    OF    SPEECH.  9. 

survived  William,  two  statements  are  implied — Charles  survived  William, 
and,  Mary  survived  William.  In  such  a  sentence  as  '  three  and  two  is 
five, '  the  and  has  not  the  function  of  a  conjunction  •,  it  is  here  used  as  a 
preposition,  and  is  equivalent  to  with. 

(b)  Conjunction  means  a  joining  together  (Latin  con  and  junctio). 

Exercise  7. 

Pick  out  the  CONJUNCTIONS,  and  say  what  statements  they 

connect. 

I.  Hamilton  and  Jefferson  were  distinguished  statesmen.  2.  Greene  was 
a  courageous  officer,  but  Washington  was  the  greater  general  of  the  two. 
3.  You  will  succeed  if  you  persevere.  4.  We  read  the  newspapers  because 
they  give  us  the  news.  5.  I  have  not  received  the  letter,  though  I  expect  it 
every  hour. 

30.  DEFINITION  VIII.    Interjections  express  sudden  feeling; 
as,  Alas  !  how  changed  ! 

The  literal  meaning  of  Interjection  (Latin  inter  andjeciio)  is  a  throwing 
between.  This  part  of  speech  is  so  called  because  it  has  no  grammatical 
connection  with  the  other  words  in  the  sentence,  but  is  thrown  in  to  express 
sudden  emotion. 

Exercise  8. 
Pick  out  the  INTERJECTIONS. 

1.  Alas!  poor  Yorick.  2.  Hurrah!  the  work  is  done.  3.  Lo,  the  poor 
Indian !  4.  Hush !  he  sleeps  forever.  5.  Ah !  where  is  he  now  ?  6.  Pshaw ! 
it  is  nothing. 

REVIEW   OF   THE   PARTS   OF   SPEECH. 

1.  NOUNS    name  things. 

2.  PRONOUNS stand  for  nouns. 

3.  ADJECTIVES describe  or  limit  things. 

4.  VERBS make  statements. 

5.  ADVERBS describe  actions  and  qualities. 

6.  PREPOSITIONS link  words. 

7.  CONJUNCTIONS connect  statements. 

8.  INTERJECTIONS express  sudden  feeling. 

HOW   TO   TELL   THE   PARTS   OF   SPEECH. 

31.  As  words  are  arranged  in  classes,  according  to  their 
use  in  sentences,  they  are  assigned  to  their  proper  part  of 
speech  by  inspection ;  that  is,  by  carefully  noting  what  is 
their  use  in  the  sentence. 

32.  THE  NOUN. — Nouns  name  things.     Hence  any  word 
or  expression  that  has  the  use  of  a  noun  is  a  noun. 

A  2 


.10  ETYMOLOGY. 

Without  one  if  or  but. 

'If  and  'but,'  in  their  ordinary  use  as  parts  of  speech,  are  conjunc- 
tions, but  in  this  sentence  they  have  the  use  of  nouns,  and  hence  are  nouns. 

Walking  is  agreeable  exercise. 

'Walking'  is  properly  part  of  a  verb,  but  being  her3  used  as  a  noun,  it  is 
a  noun. 

33.  THE  ADJECTIVE. — Adjectives  describe  things.     Hence 
any  word  that  has  the  use  of  an  adjective  is  an  adjective. 

People  who  live  in  glass  houses  should  not  throw  stones. 

The  word  '  glass'  is  usually  a  noun,  because  it  names  a  thing ;  but  in 
this  sentence  '  glass'  has  a  descriptive  power,  and,  being  used  as  an  adjec- 
tive, is  an  adjective. 

THE  VEEB. — Verbs  make  statements.  Hence  any  word 
that  has  the  use  of  a  verb  is  a  verb. 

Sometimes  we  see  a  ship  ;  sometimes  we  ship  a  sea. 

In  its  first  use  '  ship'  is  a  noun,  because  it  names  a  thing ;  in  its  second, 
a  verb,  because  it  makes  a  statement. 

34.  PREPOSITIONS,  CONJUNCTIONS,  AND  ADVEEBS. — Certain 
words,  such  as  after,  before,  for,  since,  etc.,  are  used  sometimes 
as  prepositions,  sometimes  as  adverbs,  sometimes  as  conjunc- 
tions. 

They  are  prepositions  when  they  are  followed  by  a  noun  or 
a  pronoun  only ;  adverbs  when  they  are  followed  by  a  verb ; 
conjunctions  when  they  connect  statements.  EXAMPLE  :  'He 
came  before  [prep.]  me,  but  left  before  [adv.]  I  was  done.'  '  I 
will  not  go,  for  [conj.]  I  do  not  want  to  do  so.5  'I  have  a 


'  [conj.] 
.]  him.' 


dollar  for  [prep.]  him. 

35.  The  word  that  may  be  adjective,  pronoun,  or  conjunc- 
tion. 

Give  me  that  [adjective]  book. 

What  is  that?  [pronoun.] 

We  believe  that  [conjunction]  the  earth  is  round. 

Parsing.— Model  First. 

36.  Parsing  (Latin  pars,  a  part)  is  telling  the  part  of  speech 
of  each  word  in  a  sentence.     By  Model  First  we  simply  name 
the  part  of  speech. 


SUBDIVISIONS    OF   THE   PAETS    OF   SPEECH.  11 

Model  First. 
The  plowman  homeward  plods  his  weary  way. 

The an  adjective,  because  it  describes  *  plowman.' 

Plowman a  noun,  because  it  names  a  thing. 

Homeward an  adverb,  because  it  describes  the  action  '  plods.' 

Plods a  verb,  because  it  makes  a  statement. 

His a  pronoun,  because  it  stands  for  a  noun — namely, 

the  noun  '  plowman. ' 
Weary an  adjective,  because  it  describes  a  thing — namely, 

4  way.' 
Way a  noun,*because  it  names  a  thing. 

Exercise  9. 
PAUSE  the  following  Sentences  according  to  Model  First: 

1.  The  liberty  of  the  press  is  the  highest  safeguard  to  all  free  government. 
2.  Ours  could  not  exist  without  It.  3.  It  is  like  a  great,  exulting,  and  abound- 
ing river.  4.  It  is  fed  by  the  dews  of  heaven,  which  distill  their  sweetest 
drops  to  form  it.  5.  It  gushes  from  the  rill,  as  it  breaks  from  the  deep  cav- 
erns of  the  earth.  6.  It  is  augmented  by  a  thousand  affluents,  that  dash 
from  the  mountain  top  to  separate  again  into  ^thousand  bounteous  and  irri- 
gating streams  around.  7.  On  its  broad  bosom  it  bears  a  thousand  barks. 
8.  There  genius  spreads  its  purpling  sail.  9.  There  poetry  dips  its  silver  oar. 
10.  There  art,  invention,  discovery,  science,  morality,  religion,  may  safely  and 
securely  float.  11.  It  wanders  through  every  land.  12.  It  is  a  genial,  cor- 
dial source  of  thought  and  inspiration  wherever  it  touches,  whatever  it  sur- 
rounds. 13.  Upon  its  borders  there  grows  every  flower  of  grace  and  every 
fruit  of  truth.  14.  Sir,  I  am  not  here  to  deny  that  that  river  sometimes  over- 
steps its  bounds.  15.  I  am  not  here  to  deny  that  that  stream  sometimes  be- 
comes a  dangerous  torrent,  and  destroys  towns  and  cities  upon  its  bank. 
16.  But  I  am  here  to  say  that  without  it,  civilization,  humanity,  government, 
all  that  makes  society  itself,  would  disappear,  and  the  world  would  return  to 
its  ancient  barbarism. — E.  D.  Baker. 

&*  For  additional  pieces  to  be  used  in  Parsing,  the  teacher  is  referred  to 
any  School  Reader. 

CHAPTER  II. 

SUBDIVISIONS    OF   THE    PARTS    OF   SPEECH. 

1.  The  Noun. 

37.  Nouns  are  of  two  kinds — 

I.  Common.  II.  Proper. 

38.  Common  Nouns  are  names  of  class-objects ;  as  boy, 
king,  man,  city. 

39.  Proper  Nouns  are  such  as  denote  individual  objects; 
as  John,  Charlemagne,  Thompson,  San  Francisco. 


12  ETYMOLOGY. 

(a)  Proper  (Noun)  is  derived  from  the  Latin  proprius,  peculiar ;  that  is, 
a  name  peculiar  to  an  individual.  To  be  sure,  many  persons  have  the  name 
4  James,'  and  there  is  a  'Boston'  in  England  as  well  as  in  the  United  States  ; 
but  James  and  Boston  are  nevertheless  Proper  Nouns,  for  the  reason  that 
the  former  is  not  common  to  the  c/ass-name  man,  nor  the  latter  to  the 
c/ass-name  city.  Man  and  city  are  Common  Nouns,  because  they  name 
all  the  individuals  belonging  to  the  class. 

(6)  Proper  Nouns  are  always  written  with  initial  capital  letters. 

40.  A  Proper  Noun  becomes  a  Common  Noun  when  it 
represents  a  class;  that  is,  when  it  has  the  use  of  a  Common 
Noun.     Thus  Swift,  Nero,  are  Proper  Nouns ;  but  when  WTC 
speak  of  the  c  wit  of  a  Swift?  '  the  cruelty  of  a  Nero?  '  Swift' 
and  '  Nero'  are  Common  Nouns,  because  they  are  used  to 
represent  classes  of  men. 

41.  In  like  manner,  a  Common  Noun  becomes  a  Proper 
Noun  when  it  is  used  to  represent  an  individual  object.    Thus 
park  is  a  Common  Noun,  but  The  Park  is  a  Proper  Noun. 

Nouns  are  sometimes  further  subdivided  into  Abstract  nouns,  Participial 
nouns,  and  Collective  nouriB.  The  subdivision  is  not  a  sound  one.  Ab- 
stract nouns  are  simply  common  nouns,  and  no  more  required  to  be  specially 
distinguished  than  do  Concrete  nouns.  Certain  nouns  that  appear  to  be 
participial  nouns — that  is,  that  end  in  ing — are  not  necessarily  participles 
at  all ;  many  of  them  come  from  Saxon  nouns  in  ung,  as  rising,  morning, 
etc. ;  and,  for  the  rest,  any  participle  that  has  the  use  of  a  noun  is  a  noun. 
The  proper  treatment  of  Collective  nouns  is  under  the  inflection  of  number 
(see  Syntax  of  the  Noun). 

Exercise  10. 

Assign  each  NOUN  to  its  CLASS. 

MODEL. —  The  Cotter's  Saturday  Night,  composed  by  Robert 
Burns,  is  a  charming  poem. 

Cotter's  Saturday  Night is  a  proper  noun,  because  it  denotes  an  indi- 
vidual object. 

Robert  Burns is  a  proper  noun,  because  it  denotes  an  indi- 
vidual object. 

Poem is  a  common  noun,  because  it  is  the  name  of 

a  class-object. 

1 .  France  has  not  seen  such  another  king  as  Henry  the  Fourth. 

2.  Hope  is  as  strong  an  incentive  to  action  as  fear. 

3.  David  and  Jonathan  loved  each  other  tenderly. 

4.  The  '  Tempest'  was  the  last  tragedy  written  by  Shakspeare. 

5.  Men  and  women  used  to  make  pilgrimages  to  Canterbury. 

6.  Chaucer  wrote  the  Canterbury  Tales. 

7.  The  Channel  is  noted  for  its  rough  weather. 

8.  Milton  is  the  Homer  of  English  literature. 

9.  Thou  hast  all  seasons  for  thine  own,  O  Death. 


SUBDIVISIONS    OF   THE   PARTS    OP   SPEECH.  13 

10.  Many  a  frozen,  many  a  fiery  Alp  appeared. 

1 1.  The  Times  gave  an  account  of  Palmerston's  death. 

12.  O  Justice,  thou  art  fled  to  brutish  beasts ! 

Exercise  11. 
Give  a  COMMON  Noun  for  each  group  of  PROPER  Nouns. 

1 .  Shakspeare,  Milton,  Homer  were poets. 

2.  Hudson,  Mississippi,  Rhine  are ? 

3.  London,  New  York,  San  Francisco  are ? 

4.  Washington,  Adams,  Jefferson  were ? 

5.  The  United  States,  Switzerland,  Mexico  are ? 

6.  Webster,  Clay,  Calhoun  were ? 

2.  The  Pronoun. 

42.  Pronouns  are  of  three  kinds — 

I.  Personal.        II.  Demonstrative.        III.  ^Relative. 

I.  PERSONAL  PRONOUNS. 

48.  The  Personal  Pronouns  are:  I,  you,  he,  she,  it;  we, 
you,  they. 

44.  I  and  ice  denote  the  person  speaking,  and  are  said  to 
be  of  the  First  Person. 

45.  You  denotes  the  person  spoken  to,  and  is  said  to  be  of 
the  Second  Person. 

Thou  was  anciently  used  instead  of  you :  it  is  found  in  the  English  trans- 
lation of  the  Bible ;  but  it  is  now  used  only  in  prayer  or  on  other  solemn 
occasions,  and  in  poetry. 

46.  He,  she,  it,  and  they  denote  the  person  or  the  thing 
spoken  of,  and  are  said  to  be  of  the  Third  Person. 

(a)  Note  that  the  personal  pronoun  of  the  third  person  is  the  only  one 
having  distinctive  words  to  denote  the  sexes — he  for  the  male,  she  for  the 
female,  and  it  for  sexless  objects.     The  personal  pronouns  of  the  first  and 
of  the  second  person  have  no  gender,  because,  there  being  an  actual  speak- 
er and  an  actual  hearer,  the  one  is  supposed  to  know  the  other's  gender  as 
a  matter  of  course. 

(b)  There  is  an  important  difference  between  the  personal  pronouns  of 
the  first  and  of  the  second  person,  and  the  personal  pronoun  of  the  third 
person.     'He,'  'she,'  and  'it'  come  fully  up  to  the  definition  of  the  pro- 
noun— that  is,  they  stand  for  Nouns.     But  for  what  nouns  do  'I,'  'we,' 
and  'you'  stand?     Properly  speaking,  they  do  not  stand  for  nouns  at  all, 
but  are  remarkable  little  words  used  to  express  what  there  is  no  other 
term  to  express,  namely,  the  personality  of  the  speaker  and  of  the  person 
spoken  to.     The  radical  difference  between  the  pronouns  of  the  first  and  of 
the  second  person,  and  the  pronoun  of  the  third  person,  has  led  the  most 


14  ETYMOLOGY. 

advanced  modern  grammarians  to  confine  the  name  Personal  Pronouns  to 
the  former,  and  to  class  he,  she,  it  with  Demonstratives ;  but  the  old  no- 
menclature does  not  lead  to  any  mistakes  of  practice,  and  hence  it  has  not 
been  changed  in  this  text-book. 

II.  DEMONSTRATIVE  PEONOUNS. 

47.  The  term  Demonstratives  is  applied  to  a  small  class  of 
peculiar  representative  words  that  can  stand  by  themselves, 
and  hence  that  deserve  to  be  called  Pronouns. 

48.  The  principal  Demonstrative  Pronouns  are : 

This  and  that In  this  'tis  God  designs ;  in  that  'tis  man. 

These  and  those Some  place  their  bliss  in  action,  some  in  ease;  those 

call  it  pleasure,  and  contentment  these. 

Each Each  seemed  the  centre  of  his  own  fair  world. 

Either  and  Neither.  .1  will  take  either,  but  you  shall  have  neither. 

One  and  Other The  one  puts  his  sickle  into  the  other's  harvest. 

Some. Some  fell  by  the  wayside. 

All All  consented  to  the  plan. 

Both Here  is  an  apple  and  an  orange :  you  may  have  both. 

Many  and  few Many  are  called,  but  few  are  chosen. 

None None  knew  him  but  to  love  him ;  none  named  him 

but  to  praise. 

Such If  you  are  a  man,  show  yourself  such. 

So We  think  our  fathers  fools,  so  wise  we  grow ;  our 

wiser  sons,  no  doubt,  will  think  us  so. 

Each  Other  and  One)  Little  children,  love  one  another.    Richard  andThom- 
another )       as  esteem  each  other. 

Another But  never  either  found  another  to  free  the  hollow 

heart  from  pain. 
Any Who's  here  so  base  that  he  would  be  a  bondman  ? 

If  any,  speak. 

Ones My  wife  and  little  ones. 

Others Some  said  it  was  true,  others  denied  it. 

Much Though  much  is  taken,  much  remains. 

Former  and  Latter..  Adams  and  Jefferson  were  distinguished  statesmen : 
the  former  was  born  in  Massachusetts  ;  the  latter, 
in  Virginia. 

One One  is  seldom  at  a  loss  what  to  do  with  one's  money. 

They They  say  that  the  emperor  is  ill. 

It It  was  impossible  to  recognize  him. 

There There  came  to  the  beach  a  poor  exile  of  Erin. 


SUBDIVISIONS   OF   THE   PAKTS    OF   SPEECH.  15 


NOTES    ON   THE    DEMONSTRATIVES. 

NOTE  I. — The  above  Demonstratives  are  all  Pronouns,  for  the  reason 
that  they  have  the  power  of  representing  NOUNS.  They  are  named  Demon- 
strative Pronouns  because  their  use  is  to  point  out.  The  following  deserve 
particular  notice : 

It The  Pronoun  It  is  classed  as  one  of  the  Personal  Pronouns,  and  right- 
ly so  in  its  ordinary  use.  Thus,  if  we  say, '  This  is  a  large  house ; 
it  is  built  of  brick,'  it  is  a  Personal  Pronoun.  But  there  is  a  pe- 
culiar idiomatic  use  of  it,  as  in  the  sentence,  ilt  was  impossible 
to  recognize  him.'  When  thus  employed,  the  word  it  is  a  Demon- 
strative, and  serves  to  introduce  the  real  subject,  which  in  this  con- 
struction comes  after  the  verb.  llt  was  impossible  to  recognize 
him'  =  '  to  recognize  him  was  impossible.'  This  may  be  called  the 
idiomatic  It. 

There. The  word  there  has  sometimes  the  function  of  a  Pronoun,  as  in  the 
example,  There  came  to  the  beach  a  poor  exile  of  Erin— A  poor 
exile  came,  etc.  There,  thus  employed,  has  the  same  power  as  it ; 
that  is,  it  serves  to  introduce  a  sentence. 

One. ..There  is  a  peculiar  use  of  the  word  one,  as  in  the  sentence,  One 
can  not  but  think  that  all  the  planets  are  inhabited.  In  this  use, 
its  force  is  to  make  indefinite  reference.  Note  that  the  Pronoun 
'one'  is  etymologically  a  different  word  from  the  adjective  'one.' 
The  latter  is  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  ane,  meaning  a  or  one.  The 
former  is  from  the  French  on,  as  in  on  dit — literally  one  says,  that  is, 
they  say.  The  French  on  is  a  contraction  of  homme,  man.  Com- 
pare the  German,  Man  sagt=man  says,  that  is,  one  says. 

They. The  plural  Personal  Pronoun  They  has  an  idiomatic  use,  as  in  the 
sentence, '  They  say  [that  is,  people  say,  or  it  is  said~\  that  the  Em- 
peror is  ill.'  When  so  employed,  it  is  to  be  ranked  as  a  Demonstra- 
tive. Its  use  is  the  same  as  '  one'  above ;  that  is,  it  makes  indefi- 
nite reference. 

NOTE  II. — The  class  Demonstratives  is  sometimes  subdivided  as  follows : 

INDEFINITE  PRONOUNS — Any,  Many,  Few,  One,  They,  Some,  Other,  All, 

None,  Another,  and  Much. 

DISTRIBUTIVE  PRONOUNS — Each,  Both,  Either,  Neither. 
DEMONSTRATIVE  PRONOUNS — This,  That,  Such,  So,  Former,  Latter. 
RECIPROCAL  PRONOUNS — Each  Other,  One  Another. 
IDIOMATIC  OR  INTRODUCTORY  PRONOUNS — It,  There. 

HiT  The  derivation  of  most  of  these  Demonstratives  is  given  in  the  list  of 
Demonstrative  Adjectives  [^[  GO],  where  most  of  them  recur. 

III.  RELATIVE  PEONOUNS. 

49.  The  Relative  Pronouns  are  who,  which,  that,  and  what. 
They  are  called  relatives  because  they  relate,  or  carry  back 
(from  re,  back,  and  latus,  carried)  our  thoughts  to  some  other 


16  ETYMOLOGY. 

word  that  goes  before  them  in  the  sentence.     The  word  that 
the  pronoun  represents  is  called  the  Antecedent. 

50.  Who  relates  to  persons.      Which  relates  to  the  lower 
animals  and  to  lifeless  things.     That  may  take  the  place  of 
either  who  'or  which.     [For  the  special  rules  governing  the 
use  of  that,  see  Syntax  of  the  Pronoun.] 

51.  The  peculiarity  of  the  relative  is,  that  it  makes  one 
sentence  of  what  would  otherwise  be  two  sentences,  serving 
the  purpose  of  a  connective  as  well  as  of  a  pronoun,  and  mak- 
ing one  of  the  sentences  more  prominent,  while  the  other  is 
subordinate. 

'The  mountain  which  I  climbed  is  very  high.'  The  thing  principally 
asserted  is  that  the  mountain  is  very  high ;  that  I  climbed  it  is  a  subordi- 
nate fact  in  the  sentence,  and  it  is  connected  with  the  main  statement  by 
the  relative  which.  The  sentence = The  mountain  is  very  high,  and  I 
climbed  it. 

52.  The  pronoun  what  is  equivalent  to  which  thing,  or  that 
which. 

What  appears  to  include  in  itself  both  the  antecedent  and  the  relative, 
and  hence  is  usually  called  a  compound  pronoun.  It  is,  however,  simply  the 
neuter  of  who  with  its  antecedent  omitted.  The  antecedent  of  who  may 
also  be  omitted.  There  is  really  no .  difference  of  function  between  who 
and  what  in  the  sentences,  'Who  steals  my  purse  steals  trash-,'  and  'What 
is  done  can  not  be  undone.' 

53.  The  word  as  has  the  force  of  a  relative  when  its  ante- 
cedent is  qualified  by  the  adjective  such  ;  as, 

We  are  such  stuff  as  dreams  are  made  of. 

54.  But  is  sometimes  a  negative  relative,  and  its  anteced- 
ent is  always  a  negative ;  as, 

There  is  720  fireside,  howsoe'er  defended, 
But  has  [=that  has  not]  one  vacant  chair. 

55.  The  Pronouns  who,  which,  and  what,  when  used  in  ask- 
ing a  question,  are  called  Interrogative  Pronouns. 

For  who  to  dumb  forgetfulness  a  prey 
This  pleasing,  anxious  being  e'er  resigned  ? 

Exercise  12. 

A. 
Assign  each  P&ONOUN  to  its  proper  Class. 

1.  I  hope  you  will  give  me  the  book  that  I  lent  you.     2.  The  prince  left 
his  own  carriage,  and  entered  that  of  the  general.     3.  One  can  not  always  be 


SUBDIVISIONS    OF   THE    PAKTS    OP    SPEECH.  17 

sure  of  one's  friends.  4.  As  he  entered  the  field,  there  sprang  up,  about  three 
yards  from  him,  a  large  hare.  5.  It  is  an  ill  wind  that  blows  nobody  good. 
({.  What  did  the  prisoner  say  ?  7.  Tell  me  what  the  prisoner  said.  8.  Blessed 
be  the  Lord,  who  hath  not  given  us  as  a  prey  to  their  teeth.  9.  The  men 
whom  I  spoke  to  made  no  answer.  10.  The  king,  who  is  the  head  of  the 
state,  may  withhold  his  consent  from  a  measure  which  has  passed  both  houses 
of  Parliament.  11.  Ours  are  as  good  as  yours.  12.  They  say  that  the  Secre- 
tary will  resign,  which  will  break  up  the  cabinet. 

B. 

1.  Who  was  the  thane  lives  yet. — Shakspeare. 

2.  There  is  no  flock,  however  watched  and  tended, 
But  one  dead  lamb  is  there. — Longfellow, 

3.  There's  a  divinity  that  shapes  our  ends, 
Rough-hew  them  how  we  will. — Shakspeare. 

4.  What  in  me  is  dark, 
Illumine-  what  is  low,  raise  and  support. — Milton. 
I  dare  do  all  that  may  become  a  man  ; 

Who  dares  do  more  is  none. — Shakspeare. 

6.  The  old  man  told  him  that  he  worshiped  the  fire  only,  and  acknowl- 

edged no  other  God.     At  which  answer  Abraham  grew  so  zealously 
angry  that  he  thrust  the  old  man  out  of  his  tent. — Jeremy  Taylor. 

7.  'Tis  the  mind  that  makes  the  body  rich. — Shakspeare. 

8.  I  have  seen  him  buy  such  bargains  as  would  amaze  one.  —  Goldsmith. 

9.  Breathes  there  a  man  with  soul  so  dead, 
Who  never  to  himself  hath  said, 

This  is  my  own,  my  native  land  ? — Scott. 

We  have  fished  up  very  little  gold  that  I  can  learn  •,  nor  do  we  furnish 

the  world  with  herrings,  as  was  expected. — Qoldsmith. 
11.  Whenever  Antonio  met  Shylock  on  the  Rialto,  he  used  to  reproach 
him  with  his  usuries  and  hard  dealings ;  which  the  Jew  would  hear 
with  seeming  patience,  while  he  secretly  meditated  revenge. — Lamb. 

3.  The  Adjective. 

56.  Adjectives  are  subdivided  into  three  classes — 

1.  COMMON  ADJECTIVES; 

2.  ARTICLES; 

3.  DEMONSTRATIVE  ADJECTIVES. 

57.  Common  Adjectives  describe  things  by  name  or  quality. 

(a)  Under  Common  Adjectives  is  included  the  Participle  whenever  it 
has  the  office  of  an  adjective,  as,  The  running  water.  Under  the  same 
head  are  also  included  what  are  sometimes  called  proper  adjectives — name- 
ly, those  derived  from  proper  names — as,  'English,'  'American.' 

(6)  Such  compounds  as  silver-robed,  rose-colored,  are  sometimes  called 
compound  adjectives ;  but  the  simple  term,  Adjective,  sufficiently  desig- 
nates them. 


1 8  ETYMOLOGY. 

58.  The  Articles  are  The,  called  the  definite  article,  and 
An  or  A,  called  the  indefinite  article. 

(«)  The  points  out  a  particular  individual,  or  a  group  of  individuals,  of 
a  certain  class ;  as,  the  apple— a  particular  apple  already  referred  to  or  to 
be  referred  to. 

(b)  An  or  a  points  out  a  class  to  which  a  thing  belongs ;  as  an  apple  — 
any  one  of  the  class  called  apple.  An  is  from  the  same  Saxon  root  as  the 
word  any.  Different  languages  are  variously  supplied  with  Articles.  The 
Greek  and  the  Hebrew  have  only  the  definite  article,  the  Latin  has  no  ar- 
ticle at  all  •,  most  of  the  modern  languages,  as  Italian,  French,  German,  and 
Spanish,  have  both  articles.  The  name  Article  literally  means  a  small 
joint.  It  seems  merely  to  express  that  they  are  small  words.  They  are 
really  adjectives  in  their  use,  and  hence  are  classed  as  such  in  this  book. 

59.  A  is  used  before  words  beginning  with  a  consonant 
sound ;  as,  a  man,  a  house,  a  wonder,  a  year,  a  use,  a  unit,  a 
European.    An  is  used  before  words  beginning  with  a  vowel 
sound ;  as,  an  art,  an  end,  an  heir,  an  hour,  an  urn. 

(a)  The  learner  must  particularly  note  that  the  use  of  a  or  an  depends, 
not  on  whether  the  initial  letter  of  the  succeeding  word  is  a  vowel  or  a  con- 
sonant^ but  a  vowel  sound  or  a  consonant  sound.  Thus  '  use'  and  '  urn' 
both  begin  with  the  vowel  u ;  but  in  the  first  instance  u  has  a  consonant 
sound,  in  the  second  a  vowel  sound.  W  and  y,  beginning  words,  are  con- 
sonants, and  words  commencing  with  these  letters,  or  the  sounds  of  these 
letters,  take  a.  Words  beginning  with  the  sounded  h  take  «;  as,  a  history ; 
those  beginning  with  h  silent  take  an;  as,  an  honor.  The  people  of  En- 
gland '  drop  their  h's,'  in  many  instances,  where  we  sound  them,  and  hence 
use  an  where  we  use  a :  thus  they  say  an  historian.  American  usage 
sounds  the  A,  and  consequently  joins  a ;  thus,  a  historian. 

(6)  The  n  in  an  is  a  part  of  the  root  (as  in  Latin  units,  French  un). 
Hence  it  is  not  a  that  becomes  an  before  a  vowel  or  a  silent  A,  according  to 
the  common  rule,  but  an  which  loses  its  final  letter  before  a  consonant. 

60.  Demonstrative  Adjectives  point  out  specific  objects. 
The  following  are  the  principal  demonstrative  adjectives : 

This  and  these used  to  point  out  objects  near  the  speaker. 

This  pencil  take,  she  said,  whose  colors  clear 
Eichly  paint  the  vernal  year. — Gray. 

That  and  those used  to  indicate  objects  distant  from  the  speaker — 

And  first  review  that  long,  extended  plain, 

And  those  wide  groves,  already  passed  with  pain. — Collins. 

NOTE. — When  two  objects  are  named,  this  represents  the  latter,  that 
the  former. 

Such means  like  this.    Such  harmony  is  in  immortal  souls.  — Shalcspeare. 

Such  is  derived  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  swi-lc,  and  is  made  up  of  the 
words  swi,  meaning  this,  and  lie,  like ;  hence  this  like = such. 


SUBDIVISIONS    OF   THE    PAKTS    OF   SPEECH.  19 

game is  frequently  used  as  a  demonstrative  adjective.    Republican  spir- 
it can  only  be  combated  by  a  spirit  of  the  same  nature. — Burke. 

Each denotes  every  individual  of  a  certain  class  viewed  separately : 

Each  ivied  arch  and  pillar  lone 

Pleads  haughtily  for  glories  gone. — Byron. 

Each  is  derived  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  ce-lc,  which  is  made  up  of  ae, 
meaning  'one,'  and  lie,  like;  hence  one  Me  — each. 

Every refers  to  individuals  taken  collect!  vely= each  and  all.     A  storm 

of  universal  fire  blasted  every  field,  consumed  every  house,  de- 
stroyed every  temple. — Burke. 

Either..  ..means  literally  whichever  of  the  two  you  please. 

Sometimes  either  has  the  sense  of  both.  On  either  side  is  level  fen = on 
both  sides. 

Neither,  .is  either  with  the  negative  prefix  ne,  not. 

Both means  two  taken  together. 

Both  is  derived  from  two  Saxon  words  meaning  two-two,  that  is,  two 
taken  together. 

Many implies  number,  but  does  not  specify  a  number.     Many  men  of 

many  minds.     Many  may  be  joined  with  a  singular  noun  pre- 
ceded by  an  or  a;  as  many  a  flower  is  born  to  blush  unseen. 
The  explanation  of  this  may  be  that  a  is  here  a  corruption  of  of:  the 
noun  was  originally  plural,  many  of  flowers. 

Any.  „, ..  .means  one  of  a  certain  number,  without  stating  which  among  the 
number. 

No a  contraction  of  none;  as  no  man  liveth  for  himself.     There  is  an 

idiomatic  use  of  not  with  the  indefinite  article  a  ;  as  in  the  sen- 
tence, Not  a  drum  was  heard,  etc.  This  is  the  same  as  no 
drum  was  Heard. 

Some means  certain,  and  denotes  number  or  quantity  indefinitely.    Some 

pious  drops  the  closing  eye  requires. — Gray. 

Pew means  not  many.     Few  persons  can  bear  prosperity. 

All includes  universally.     All  men  are  mortal. 

No excludes  universally.     No  men  are  satisfied. 

NOTE. — In  the  above  list  are  included  various  pronouns  that  are  some- 
times classed  in  distinct  groups.  It  seems  needless  to  make  the  fine  dis- 
tinctions that  are  drawn,  as  the  term  Demonstrative  sufficiently  denotes 
these  adjectives.  The  following  is  a  common  classification  of  this  group 
of  Adjectives : 

DEMONSTRATIVE  ADJECTIVES  :  This,  That,  These,  Those,  Same. 
DISTRIBUTIVE  ADJECTIVES  :  Each,  Every,  Either,  Neither. 
INDEFINITE  ADJECTIVES:  Many,  Much,  Several,  Few,  All,  No,  Other, 

Such,  Whole. 
NUMERAL  ADJECTIVES  •.  One,  Two,  Three  ;  First,  Second,  Third,  etc. 


20  ETYMOLOGY. 

Exercise  13. 
A. 

Assign  each  ADJECTIVE  to  Us  proper  Class. 
1.  A  terrible  war  had  been  waged  for  many  years.  2.  The  British  coal- 
fields, it  is  said,  will  be  exhausted  in  three  generations.  3.  The  murder  was 
no  deed  of  a  few  moments.  4.  The  false  glare  of  military  glory  shows  mas- 
sacre and  rapine  decked  in  the  colors  of  good  deeds.  5.  The  heavy  brigade 
was  drawn  up  in  two  lines.  6.  Each  soldier  knew  his  duty,  and  every  man 
was  prepared  to  do  it.  7.  The  captain  lost  both  his  sons,  the  one  in  battle, 
tbe  other  at  sea.  8.  The  sisters  embraced  each  other,  and  took  their  last 
farewell.  9.  There  is  much  wisdom  in  the  words  of  the  old  man,  but  little 
grace  in  his  speech.  10.  Nothing  is  more  remarkable  than  the  rapid  prog- 
ress of  this  country  in  material  wealth  during  the  present  generation.  11. 
The  bloom  of  that  fair  face  is  wasted ;  the  hair  is  gray  with  care.  12.  I 
passed  some  time  in  the  contemplation  of  this  wonderful  structure,  and  the 
great  variety  of  objects  which  it  presented. 

B. 

1.  A  wise  man  will  make  haste  to  forgive,  because  he  knows  the  true  val- 

ue of  time,  and  will  not  suffer  it  to  pass  away  in  unnecessary  Dain  — 
Johnson'. 

2.  Of  these,  the  false  Achitophel  was  first ; 

A  name  to  all  succeeding  ages  curst. — Dry  den. 

3.  Like  other  dull  men,  the  king  was  all  his  life  suspicious  of  superior 

people.  —  Thackeray. 

4.  These  wave  their  town  flag  in  the  arched  gateway ;  and  stand,  rolling 

their  drum  ;  but  to  no  purpose. — Carlyle. 

5.  And  of  this  remnant  will  I  leave  a  part, 
True  men,  who  love  me  still,  for  whom  I  live, 
To  guard  thee  in  the  wild  hour  coming  on, 

Lest  but  a  hair  of  this  low  head  be  harmed. — Tennyson. 

6.  There  never  was,  on  the  whole,  a  ouieter  time  than  the  reigns  of  the 

two  first  Georges. — Jeffrey. 

7.  O  Caledonia !  stern  and  wild, 
Meet  nurse  for  a  poetic  child ! 

Land  of  brown  heath  and  shaggy  wood, 
Land  of  the  mountain  and  the  flood. — Scott. 

8.  It  is  a  common  observation,  that  objects  which  in  the  reality  would 

shock,  are  in  tragical  and  such  like  representations  the  source  of  a 
very  high  species  of  pleasure. — Burke. 

9.  The  Malay  has  been  a  fearful  enemy  for  months  :  every  night,  through 

his  means,  I  have  been  transported  into  Asiatic  scenery. — J}e  Quincey. 
10.  Roll  on,  thou  deep  and  dark  blue  ocean — roll ! 

Ten  thousand  fleets  sweep  over  thee  in  vain. — Byron. 

4.  The  Verb. 

61.  Verbs  are  divided,  according  to  the  function  they  per- 
form, into, 

I.  Complete  Verbs.  II.  Incomplete  Verbs. 


SUBDIVISIONS    OF   THE    PARTS    OP    SPEECH.  21 

62.  A  Verb  is  Complete  when  by  itself  it  makes  a  complete 
statement. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1.  Fishes  swim. 

2.  Water  freezes. 

3.  Truth  exists. 

4.  God  is  [— exists :  here  is  is  used  in  its  absolute  sense, 

and  is  a  Complete  Verb ;  in  its  ordinary  use  it  is 
an  Incomplete  Verb.     See  T  66]. 

63.  A  Verb  is  incomplete  when  it  does  not  by  itself  make 
a  complete  statement.     Such  Verbs  require,  in  order  to  make 
sense,  the  addition  of  a  word  called  their  Complement. 

64.  Incomplete  Verbs  that  require  as  Complement  an  OB- 
JECT (Noun  or  Pronoun),  to  which  the  action  expressed  by 
the  Verb  2^sses  over,  are  called  Tranbitive  'trans,  over,  and 
ire,  to  go). 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1.  Solomon  built  the  Temple. 

EXPLANATION. — Built  is  an  Incomplete  Verb,  because  it  does  not  make 
full  sense  by  itself.  We  ask,  '  Built  what  ?'  The  answer  is,  the  temple. 
The  word  'temple'  is  the  Complement  of  the  Incomplete  Verb  built.  As 
'  built1  has  an  object  (the  noun  '  temple')  for  its  Complement,  it  is  a  Transi- 
tive Verb. 

2.  Music  pleases  me. 

EXPLANATION. — Pleases  is  an  Incomplete  Verb,  and  it  is  Transitive, 
because  it  requires  an  object — in  this  case,  the  word  me.  The  pronoun  me 
is  in  the  objective  case,  and  all  objects  of  transitive  verbs  are  said  to  be  in 
the  objective  case. 

65.  Incomplete  Verbs  that  require  as  Complement  a  word 
(Adjective,  Noun,  or  Pronoun)  relating  to  their  subject  are 
called  Neuter  or  Copula  Verbs. 

66.  The  principal  Copula  Verb  is  the  verb  To  Be.     Other 
verbs  belonging  to  this   class  are  Become,  Seem,  Appear, 
Grow,  Feel,  Look,  Smell,  Taste. 

The  peculiarity  of  these  Copula  Verbs  is  that  each  implies  in  its  mean- 
ing the  verb  To  Be.  Thus  Become'  is  really  to  come  to  be;  'Appear'  is 
to  be  in  appearance ;  '  Feel'  is  to  be  to  the  touch,  etc. 


22  ETYMOLOGY. 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1.  Mary  was  beautiful  [adjective-complement  of  the  neuter 

verb  was]. 

2.  Elizabeth  was  queen  [noun-complement  of  was]. 

3.  It  is  7",  be  not  afraid  [pronoun-complement  of  is]. 

4.  A  boy  becomes  a  man  [noun-complement  of  neuter  verb 

becomes]. 

5.  Cheerful  he  seemed,  and  gentleness  he  loved  [cheerful, 

adjective-complement  of  the  neuter  verb  seemed]. 

6.  Macbeth  looked  pale  [pale,  adjective-complement  of  the 

neuter  verb  looked]. 

7.  Henry  VIII.  appeared  every  inch  a  king  \king,  noun- 

complement  of  the  neuter  verb  appeared]. 

8.  The  rose  smells  sweet  [smells,  adjective-complement  of 

smells =ihe  scent  of  the  rose  is  sweet]. 

NOTES   ON  THE   VERB. 

NOTE  I. — It  is  important  to  note  carefully  the  class  to  which  a  verb 
belongs — to  observe  if  it  is  transitive,  neuter,  or  Complete.  We  tell  to 
which  class  a  verb  belongs  by  inspection  ;  that  is,  by  studying  its  sense. 
Such  inspection  is  necessary  because — 

(1)  The  same  word  is  sometimes  used  as  an  Incomplete  and  some- 
times as  a  Complete  verb :  Heat  melts  ice  ;  Ice  melts — the  first  Incom- 
plete and  transitive,  the  second  Complete.  'She  reads  a  book;'  'She 
reads  well' — the  first  transitive,  the  second  Complete.  (2)  A  verb  usu- 
ally Complete  may  become  Incomplete.  Thus  march  is  a  Complete  verb ; 
yet  we  can  say  he  marched  his  armies  ;  that  is,  he  caused  them  to  march. 
Water  freezes ;  cold  freezes  water. 

NOTE  II. — There  are  some  verbs  of  this  kind  :  '  To  take  care  of,'  '  to  lay 
hold  of. '  Take  care  of  is  one  verb,  and  lay  hold  of  is  one  verb.  These,  and 
others  like  them,  are  idiomatic  forms ;  and  in  speaking  of  the  verb,  the 
words  are  not  to  be  separated. 

NOTE  III. — Some  Complete  verbs  are  followed  by  an  object  of  similar 
meaning  to  themselves,  as  I  dreamed  a  sad  dream.  He  sleeps  the  sleep 
of  death.  Some  Complete  verbs  are,  properly  speaking,  reflexive,  that  is, 
the  agent  acts  upon  himself;  but  we  have  almost  ceased  to  repeat  the  pro- 
noun, and  so  the  verb  seems  complete  without  an  object.  I  wash  [my- 
self], the  cow  feeds  [herself],  he  awakes  [himself],  are  used  intransitively; 
but  I  wash  the  floor,  yon  feed  the  cattle,  he  awoke  me,  are  used  transitively. 
NOTE  IV. — Certain  Complete  verbs,  when  followed  by  particular  prepo- 
sitions, become  transitive,  and  require  an  object.  Thus,  The  baby  laughs 
[Complete] ;  We  laughed  at  the  clown  [transitive,  with  clown  as  object]. 
The  ragged  rascal  ran  ;  Ifarragut  ran-down  the  Atlanta. 

Exercise  14. 

Assign  each  VEEB  to  its  proper  Class. 
1.  Lives  of  great  men  all  remind  us, 
We  can  make  our  lives  sublime. 


SUBDIVISIONS    OF   THE    PAETS    Oj 

2.  Chill  penury  repressed  their  noble  i 
And  froze  the  genial  current  of  the  j 

3.  Some  murmur  when  their  sky  is  clear? 

4.  Sir  Christopher  Wren  built  St.  Paul's. 

5.  Virtue  is  its  own  reward. 

G.  He  was  a  man,  take  him  for  all  in  all, 
I  shall  not  look  upon  his  like  again. 

7.  Where  heaves  the  turf  in  many  a  mouldering  heap.  • 

8.  And  there  upon  the  ground  I  sit, 
I  sit  and  sing  to  them. 

9.  The  gas  burns  brightly  this  evening. 
10.4 Whatever  is  is  right 

11.  Mohammedans  wash  three  times  a  day. 

12.  Full  well  they  laughed  with  counterfeited  glee 
At  all  his  jokes,  for  many  a  joke  had  he. 

5.  The  Adverb. 

67.  Adverbs  are  divided  into  those  of— 

1.  Time.         2.  Place.         3.  Manner.         4.  Cause. 

68.  I.  Adverbs  of  Time  express  fwken,  how  often,  or  how 
long  an  action  is  done ;  now,  seldom,  always,  to-morrow. 

69.  II.  Adverbs  of  Place  express  where,  whither,  or  whence 
an  action  proceeds ;  here,  whence,  aloft,  below. 

70.  III.  Adverbs  of  Manner  express  how  an  action  is  done, 
or  how  a  quality  is  possessed ;  well,  softly,  so.     This  class 
includes  the  numerous  adverbs  derived  from  adjectives  of 
quality  by  adding  ly. 

(a.)  Gate  must  be  taken  to  distinguish  adverbs  of  manner  in  -ly  from  ad- 
jectives in  ly,  like  kindly,  daily.  The  latter  are  made  generally  from 
nouns. 

(6.)  The  suffix  ly,  which  forms  so  many  hundreds  of  adverbs,  is  the  An- 
glo-Saxon word  lie— like:  thus  boldly =bold-/i/ce;  only— one-like. 

71.  IV.  Adverbs  of  Cause  express  why  a  thing  is  done; 
therefore,  whence,  thence,  why. 

72.  There  are  certain  adverbs  belonging  to  each  of  the  four 
classes  which  are  used  only  as  connectives.     These  are  called 
RELATIVE  ADVEKBS.     They  are — 

1.  Relative  Adverbs  of  Time  ;  when,  whenever,  and  while. 

2.  Relative  Adverbs  of  Place  ;  where,  whither,  and  whence. 

3.  Relative  Adverbs  of  Manner  ;  how  and  as. 

4.  Relative  Adverbs  of  Cause  ;  why  and  wherefore. 

t 


24  ETYMOLOGY. 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Shall  I  be  frighted  wlien  a  madman  stares  ? — ShaTcspeare. 
The  world  was  all  before  them  where  to  .choose 
Their  place  of  rest,  and  Providence  their  guide. — Milton. 

73.  These  adverbs,  unlike  all  other  adverbs,  have  no  mean- 
ing in  themselves.  'He  came  while*  does  not  mean  any 
thing ;  the  sense  is  suspended  till  some  other  words  are  sup- 
plied, as  '  he  came  while  I  was  speaking?  Here  while  con- 
nects 'I  Was  speaking'  with  che  came.' 

NOTES   ON   THE   ADVERB. 

NOTE  I. — The  relative  adverbs  are  derived  from  the  same  Anglo-Saxon 
root  as  the  relative  pronouns  who  and  which.  Hence  they  may  generally 
be  resolved  into  an  antecedent  and  a  relative  phrase.  Thus, '  He  arrived 
when  we  left'  may  be  resolved  into,  *  He  arrived  at  the  time  [antecedent] 
at  which  we  left'  [relative  clause]. 

NOTE  II. — Adverbial  phrases  are  expressions  made  up  of  two  or  more 
adverbs  connected  by  conjunctions,  or  they  are  expressions  consisting  of  a 
preposition  with  a  noun,  an  adjective,  or  an  adverb.  EXAMPLES  :  By  and 
by,  up  and  down,  in  and  out ;  one  by  one,  from  below,  at  length,  at  all,  by 
far,  as  yet,  to-day,  to-morrow. 

NOTE  III. — The  word  the  in  such  expressions  as  '  the  sooner  the  better' 
is  not  to  be  parsed  by  itself;  l  the  sooner'  and  'the  better'  should  be  parsed 
as  adverbial  phrases. 

NOTE  IV. — Yes  and  No,  which  are  usually  called  adverbs  of  certainty, 
being  incapable  of  standing  beside  a  verb,  must  be  considered  as  peculiar 
words,  rather  adverbs  than,  any  thing  else,  and  yet  not  adverbs  in  the  strict 
sense  of  the  term.  These  words  come  from  verb-roots.  Yes  means  liter- 
ally let  it  indeed  be.  No,  the  term  of  denial,  comes  down  to  us  from  thou- 
sands of  years  ago.  In  parsing,  call  them  Independent  Adverbs. 

NOTE  V. — A  number  of  compound  adverbs,  such  as  herein,  whereby, 
withal,  hereto,  etc.,  are  now,  except  in  legal  documents,  solemn  language, 
or  poetry,  out  of  date.     To  these  we  may  add 
Needs ;  as  I  must  needs  go :  needs  is  really  the  possessive  case  of  need=I 

must  of  need  go. 
Fain  ;  as  I  would  fain  tell  you. 
JErst= superlative  of  ere,  formerly. 
Whilom —formerly, 

Belike  )  1.  It  is  likely. 

Peradventure  >  =  perhaps  2.  By  chance. 
Mayhap        )  3.  It  may  happen. 

Anon  =  presently. 


Exercise  15. 

A. 
Pick  out  the  ADVERBS. 

1 .  And  now  a  bubble  bursts  and  now.  a  world.     2.  Night's  already  gone. 
3.  She  weeps  not,  but  often  and  deeply  she  sighs.     4.  Again  thy  fires  began 

4 


SUBDIVISIONS    OP   THE    PAKTS    OF    SPEECH.  25 

to  burn.  5.  Oft  she  rejects,  but  never  once  offends.  6.  HI  fared  it  then  with 
Koderick  Dhu.  7.  I  am  not  at  all  surprised.  8.  This  mine  is  by  no  means 
so  good  as  the  other.  8.  And  ever  and  anon  he  beat  the  doubling  drum.  10. 
When  once  we  drink,  our  name  is  heard  no  more.  11.  Every  one  ran  hither 
and  thither.  12.  The  lad  went  away  directly  after  dinner. 

B. 
Pick  out  the  ADVEKBS.     Tell  which  are  RELATIVE  ADVEEBS? 

and  what  they  CONNECT. 

1.  Where'er  she  turns  the  Graces  homage  pay.     2.  I  was  much  alarmed 
when  I  saw  him  in  so  wretched  a  condition.     3.  The  buffaloes  go  southward 
as  soon  as  winter  approaches.     4.  The  battle  was  soon  ended. 
5.  And  when  above  the  surges 

They  saw  his  crest  appear, 
All  Rome  sent  forth  a  rapturous  cry, 

»And  even  the  ranks  of  Tuscany 
Could  scarce  forbear  to  cheer. 

C. 

[Some  expressions  o^  an  adverbial  nature  can  be  turned 
into  single-word  Adverbs  ;  ^h^^^with  fragrance— fragrantly. 
In  the  following,  change  the  expressions  in  italics  into  Ad- 
verbs :] 

1.  Every  thing  was  done  with  prudence  and  wisdom.  2.  The  bird  builds  its 
nest  with  great  skill.  3.  John  did  his  task  in  a  great  hurry.  4.  With  slow- 
ness and  sadness  we  laid  him  down.  5.  Lift  her  up  with  tenderness. 

6.  The  Preposition. 

74.  The  English  language  contains  about  fifty  PREPOSI- 
TIONS.    They  are  all  used  to  show  the  relation  of  a  Noun  or 
of  a  Pronoun  to  some  other  word. 

75.  The  following  are  among  the  most  important  Preposi- 
tions : 

Of. . . .  The  most  common  use  of  of  is  to  denote  possession ;  as,  the  book  of 

the  scholar = the  scholars  book. 

Of  expresses  many  relations,  all  connected  with  the  original  meaning  of 
the  word,  which  is  proceeding  from. 

(1)  Of  is  used  to  relate  the  part  of  any  thing  to  the  whole;  as  '  the  walls 
of  a  town. '     This  may  be  called  the  partitive  meaning. 

(2)  0/is  used  to  connect  an  abstract  property  with  the  concrete ;  as,  the 
lightness  of  air.     This  may  be  called  the  attributive  meaning. 

(3)  O/'may  serve  to  specify  a  subject  or  to  make  a  reference;  as,  the  Book 
of  Proverbs. 

(4)  The  Preposition  of,  with  its  noun,  has  often  the  force  of  an  adjective ; 
as  a  crown  o/*gold=a  golden  crown.     This  may  be  called  the  adjective 

f  meaning. 

(f>)  Nouns  in  apposition  are  sometimes  connected  by  of,  as  '  the  city  of 
Amsterdam. ' 

B 


26  ETYMOLOGY. 

To The  primary  idea  of  to  is  motion  towards ;  as,  he  went  to  the  house. 

To  is  pointedly  contrasted  with  /rora,  as  in  the  phrase  '  to  and  fro.' 
Among  the  more  remote  applications  of  to  are  to  be  found  such  phrases  as 
'pleasant  to  the  taste,'  '  to  one's  hand,'  *  ten  to  one,' '  they  marched  to  the 
tune. '  Even  in  these  examples,  when  motion  in  the  direction  of  is  not  di- 
rectly stated,  nearness,  which  is  the  natural  result,  is  indicated. 

From means  beginning  from,  proceeding  from.     Any  thing  that  indicates 

source,  origin,  or  commencement,  may  be  preceded  by  from.    It 
is  also  applied  to  time ;  as,  ''from  morn  to  dewy  eve.' 
'It  is  inferior*/r<wn  what  I  expected'  should  be  to  what  I  expected.    'Dif- 
ferent to  that'  should  be  different  from  that. 

By the  primary  meaning  of  by  seems  to  be  alongside  of;  that  is.  proxim- 
ity. He  sat  by  the  river.  Hard  by  the  oracles  of  God.  The  other 
meanings  grow  naturally  out  of  this.  Thus,  defense  of — '  stand  by 
me;'  instrumentality — 'eaten  by  wolves.' 

Words  of  measuring  take  by  after  them,  from  the  circumstance  that  the 
things  measured  have  to  be  put  side  by  side,  as  'greater  by  half,'  'sold  by 
the  ounce.'  So  also  of  time.  By  this  time  they  are  far  away= along side 
of,  or  at  this  time. 

With the  radical  notion  involved  in  with  is  joining  or  uniting.     It  comes 

from  the  same  root  as  the  noun  withe,  meaning  a  twig  used  to 
bind  or  unite  a  bundle  of  hay. 

From  the  radical  idea  comes  that  of  company  or  companionship ;  as,  he 
traveled  with  me  for  some  days.  Possession  is  readily  implied  in  the  idea 
of  union,  as  in  '  with  the  hope  of. '  From  union  comes  the  idea  of  instru- 
mentality, as  '  fed  with  the  same  food. '  Finally,  the  use  of  '  with'  to  de- 
note opposition  (as  '  to  differ  with  a  person')  comes  from  the  fact  that  an- 
tagonists must  join  in  a  struggle. 

76.  A  Prepositional  Phrase  is  a  group  of  words  that,  taken 
together,  have  the  power  of  a  Preposition  ;  as,  for  the  sake  of, 
apart  from,  etc. 

77.  The  Preposition  and  the  Adverb  are  closely  allied,  and 
most  of  the  Simple  Prepositions  may  be  used  as  Adverbs ; 
thus — 

Prepositions.  Adverbs. 

He  fell  down  stairs.  He  moved  down. 

I  have  a  pain  in  the  head.  Go  in,  and  see  him. 

He  passed  through  the  town.  He  passed  through. 

78.  The  Relations  expressed  by  Prepositions  are — 

I.  Adjective.  II.  Adverbial. 

79.  A  preposition  expresses  the  Adjective  relation  when  it 
relates  its  object  to  a  noun  or  to  a  pronoun ;  as,  a  man  oftaste^ 
she  with  the  black  eyes. 

60.  A  preposition  expresses  the  Adverbial  relation  when  it 


SUBDIVISIONS    OF   THE    PARTS    OF    SPEECH.  2? 

relates  its  object  to  a  verb,  an  adjective,  or  another  adverb ; 
as,  he  came  in  haste  ;  go  with  rapidity. 

Exercise  16. 
Say  what  RELATION  each  PREPOSITION  expresses. 

1.  The  man  with  the  gray  coat  fell  from  the  top  of  the  wall.  2.  We  rise 
at  seven  o'clock  in  the  winter,  and  in  summer  at  six.  3.  James  VI.,  of  Scot- 
land, was  the  great-grand-nephew  of  Henry  VII.  of  England,  the  first  of  the 
Tudor  line.  4.  There  are  many  proofs  of  the  roundness  of  the  earth.  5. 
The  head  of  the  gang  listened  in  silence  to  the  remonstrances  of  his  subordi- 
nates. 6.  His  head  had  not  been  five  seconds  under  water,  when  he  rose  to 
the  surface,  and  swam  towards  the  bank.  7.  He  of  the  rueful  countenance 
answered  without  delay.  8.  As  we  walked  across  the  bridge,  we  saw  a  num- 
ber of  fish  in  the  pool  beneath  us.  9.  With  patience,  you  may  succeed.  10. 
I  have  not  seen  him  since  Monday,  but  I  expect  him  within  an  hour.  11. 
A  brilliant  meteor  shot  athwart  the  sky,  and  was  lost  behind  the  hill.  12. 
The  poor  bird  took  refuge  in  a  hole  in  the  oak,  and  died  of  fright. 

7.  The  Conjunction. 

81.  Conjunctions  are  of  two  great  kinds  : 

I.  Co-ordinate  Conjunctions.     II.  Subordinate  Conjunctions. 

82.  Co-ordinate  Conjunctions  serve  to  join  statements  of 
equal  importance,  keeping  the  connected  members  on  a  level 
with  each  other ;  as, 

The  snow  was  deep,  and  the  wind  was  cold. 
He  has  either  forgotten  his  appointment  or  he  has  missed 
the  train. 

83.  Co-ordinate  Conjunctions  may  be  subdivided  thus : 

1.  Copulative — that  is,  connecting  both  the  statements 

and  their  meaning ;  as,  and,  also,  therefore. 

2.  Disjunctive — connecting  the  statement,  but  express- 

ing separation  as  to  their  meaning  ;  as,  or,  nor,  but, 
yet. 

3.  Comparative — used  after  Adjectives,  to  join  the  two 

sides  of  a  comparison ;  than,  as. 

Than  (derived  from  then)  is  a  Conjunction  after  which  the  verb  is  gen- 
erally left  out ;  as,  My  brother  works  harder  than  you  [work].  Some  au- 
thors of  eminence,  however,  use  such  expressions  as,  Mary,  than  whom  a 
more  beautiful  woman  never  wore  a  crown.  In  this  case  than  is  used  as  a* 
preposition,  and  governs  the  objective. 

84.  Subordinate  Conjunctions  serve  as  steps  leading  from  a 
higher  to  a  lower  statement ;  as,  The  barons  met  in  armor, 
because  they  were  resolved  to  assert  their  rights. 


28  ETYMOLOGY. 

To  this  class  belong  Relative  Pronouns  used  as  connectives,  Relative 
Adverbs,  and  such  Conjunctions  as 

Doubting.....  \V,  father 

(  unless =^f  not. 

Granting Though,  although. 

Reason Because,  or,  for,  since. 

Time Before,  after,  until. 

tOT  It  will  be  seen  afterward  that  a  knowledge  of  the  structure  of  sen- 
tences depends  greatly  upon  the  clear  understanding  of  the  Con- 
junction and  its  uses. 

85.  Some  Conjunctions  are  attended  by  others  which  go 
before,  and  assist  either  to  join  or  to  disjoin  in  meaning. 
These  may  be  called  Correlative  Conjunctions. 

And       has  both Both  Louis  and  Charley  came. 


Or 

Nor 

As 

As 

That 

Or 

Though 


either Either  Ella  or  Willie  did  it. 

neither Neither  the  horse  nor  the  carriage  was  injured. 

as Her  eyes  are  as  bright  as  diamonds. 


.  He  is  not  so  bad  as  he  seems. 


so She  was  so  tired  that  she  fell  asleep. 

whether. . .  Whether  I  go  or  stay. 

'   yet Though  his  heart  bled,  yet  he  kept  a  cheerful 

countenance. 


NOTES   ON   THE   CONJUNCTION. 

AND,  the  principal  Copulative  Conjunction,  is  derived  from  an  Anglo-Saxon 
verb — andan,  to  add.  It  means  add;  as,  Bread  and  butter = bread 
add  butter. 

OR,  the  principal  Disjunctive  Conjunction,  marks  an  alternative ;  as,  Will  you 
have  an  apple  or  an  orange  ? 

Or  is  also  used  to  join  two  nouns,  of  which  the  second  is  explan- 
atory of  the  first ;  as,  the  bed,  or  channel,  of  the  river = the  bed,  that 
is  to  say,  the  channel.  In  this  use  the  first  noun  is  followed  by  a 
comma. 

IF  is  a  shortened  form  of  gif,  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  verb  gifian,  to  give.  It 
means  give  or  grant ;  as,  I  shall  go  z/ you  let  it\Q=grant  that  you 
let  me. 

BECAUSE  is  compounded  of  by  and  cause. 

A  number  of  words  that,  taken  together,  have  the  power  of  join- 
ing, form  a  Conjunctional  Phrase  ;  as,  inasmuch  as,  as  well  as,  as  if, 
etc. 

Under  the  general  term  Connectives  are  included  not  only  Con- 
junctions, but  Relative  Pronouns,  Relative  Adverbs,  and  Preposi- 
tions. 

Exercise  17. 
Tell  if  the  CONJUNCTIONS  are  CO-ORDINATE,  SUBORDINATE,  or 

CORRELATIVE. 

1.  Take  heed  lest  ye  fall.     2.  I  have  cut  my  finger,  therefore  I  can  not 
write.     3.  I  fear  I  shall  fail,  but  I  shall  make  the  attempt.     4.  I  shall  make 


SUBDIVISIONS    OF   THE    PARTS    OF   SPEECH.  29 

the  attempt,  though  I  fear  that  I  shall  fail.  5.  He  speaks  so  low  that  he  can 
not  be  heard.  6.  Kemain  where  you  are  till  I  return.  7.  He  will  neither 
come,  nor  send  an  apology.  8.  It  is  as  cold  as  Iceland.  9.  I  know  not 
whether  to  go  or  to  remain.  10.  Ask  James  if  he  is  ready;  and  if  he  is 
ready,  tell  him  to  follow  as  quickly  as  he  can.  11.  He  did  not  deserve  to 
succeed ;  for  he  made  no  effort,  and  showed  no  interest.  12.1  shall  not  go 
unless  you  call  me,  nor  will  I  remain  if  I  can  avoid  it. 

13.  Whether  he  was  combined 
With  those  of  Norway  ;  or  did  line  the  rebel 
With  hidden  help  and  vantage ;   or  that  with  both 

He  labor 'd  in  his  country's  wrack,  I  know  not. — Shakspeare. 

14.  I  can  wonder  at  nothing  more  than  how  a  man  can  be  idle ;  but  of  all 

others  a  scholar. — Hall. 

1 5.  Some  murmur  when  their  sky  is  clear, 

And  wholly  bright  to  view, 
If  one  small  speck  of  dark  appear 

In  their  great  heaven  of  blue. — Trench. 

16.  The  precise  era  of  the  invention  and  application  of  gunpowder  is  in- 

volved in  doubtful  traditions  and  equivocal  language ;  yet  we  may 
clearly  discern  that  it  was  known  before  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth 
century  p  and  that,  before  the  end  of  the  same,  the  use  of  artillery 
in  battles  and  sieges,  by  sea  and  land,  was  familiar  to  the  states  of 
Germany,  Italy,  Spain,  France,  and  England. — Gibbon. 

Parsing.— Second  Model. 

86.  In  Model  II.  of  Etymological  Parsing,  the  pupil  is  re- 
quired to  give  not  only  the  part  of  speech,  but  the  subdivis- 
ion (if  any)  to  which  it  belongs. 

The  paths  of  glory  lead  but  to  the  grave. 

The The  definite  article,  limiting  p a ths. 

paths.  ..A  common  noun. 

of A  preposition,  linking  glory  to  paths:  adjective  relation. 

glory. . .  A  common  noun. 

lead An  incomplete  verb  transitive,  the  object  us  being  understood. 

but An  adverb  of  manner  (=only),  modifying  the  adverbial  expression 

4  to  the  grave. ' 

to A  preposition,  linking  grave  to  lead:  adverbial  relation. 

the The  definite  article,  limiting  grave. 

grave  . .  A  common  noun. 


Exercise  18. 

A. 
PARSE  the  following  Sentences  : 

1.  Then  shrieked  the  timid. — Byron. 

2.  The  grave  is  the  ordeal  of  true  affection. — W.  Irving. 

3.  So  hard  a  winter  had  not  been  known  for  years. — Milman. 

4.  When  that  the  poor  have  cried,  Caesar  hath  wept. — Shakspeare. 

5.  Each  thought  on  the  woman  who  loved  him  best. — Kingsley. 


30  ETYMOLOGY. 

G.  The  boast  of  heraldry,  the  pomp  of  power, 
And  all  that  beauty,  all  that  wealth  e'er  gave, 
Await  alike  the  inevitable  hour. — Gray. 

7.  We  can  show  you  where  he  lies. — Scott. 

8.  Surely,  said  I,  man  is  but  a  shadow,  and  life  a  dream. — Addison. 

9.  What  did  he  achieve  and  suffer  in  the  world? — Carlyle. 

10.  When  my  time  was  expired,  I  worked  my  passage  home ;  and  glad  I  was 
to  see  Old  England  again,  because  I  loved  my  country. — Goldsmith. 

CHAPTER  III. 

INFLECTION. 

87.  Inflection  treats  of  the  changes  made  in  words  to  ex- 
press various  relations  and  meanings. 

• 

88.  We  can  say — boy,  and  boy's,  and  boys. 
We  can  say — man,  and  man's,  and  men. 

We  can  say — sweet,  and  sweeter,  and  sweetest 
We  can  say — walk,  and  wallam/,  and  wgjkec?. 
We  can  say — he,  and  we  can  say  his,  and  him. 
These  are  some  illustrations  of  changes  in  the  forms 
of  words. 

Inflection  enumerates  and  explains  all  the  possible  forms  of  each  part  of 
speech ;  Syntax  directs  which  form  it  is  proper  to  use  in  each  particular 
case. 

89.  Inflections  generally  consist  of  an  addition  at  the  end ; 
as  boy-s,  lion-ess,  swim-s.     Sometimes, -however,  the  change  is 
made  within  the  word  itself;  as  man,  men  ;  rise,  rose. 

90.  There  are  three  of  the  eight  classes  of  words  that  do 
not  change  their  forms  at  all.     These  can  therefore  give  us 
no  trouble.     They  are  the  Conjunction,  the  Preposition,  and 
the  Interjection.     This  leaves  five  classes  subject  to  change. 
They  are  the  Noun,  the  Pronoun,  the  Adjective,  the  Verb,  and 
the  Adverb. 

I.  The  Noun. 

91.  Nouns  are  inflected  to  express  differences  of  Number, 
of  Case,  and  of  Gender. 

I.  NUMBER. 

92.  There  are  two  Numbers,  the  Singular  Number  and  the 
Plural  Number.     A  noun  is  Singular  when  it  names  one 
thing,  as  book ;  Plural  when  it  names  more  than  one,  as 
books. 


INFLECTION.  31 

93.  RULE  I.     The  Plural  is  generally  formed  by  adding  s 
to  the  Singular ;  as  book,  book-s. 

There  were  various  modes  of  forming  the  plural  of  Anglo-Saxon  Nouns; 
as  in  an  (steor,  a  star,  steorran)  and  in  a  (gifa,  gifts,  plural  of  gifu}.  An- 
other class  of  Anglo-Saxon  Nouns  formed  their  plural  in  -as,  which  in  later 
English  became  -es,  and  ultimately  -s.  This  form  of  the  plural-ending  be- 
came the  main  one  probably  on  account  of  its  similarity  to  the  Norman- 
French  plural  ending  s. 

94.  RULE  II.     Nouns  ending  in  sounds  that  do  not  easily 
combine  with  s  form  their  plural  by  adding  es  ;  as  loss-es, 
fish-es,  church-es. 

(a)  The  sounds  that  do  not  easily  combine  with  s  are  ch  soft,  sh,  ss,  s, 
and  x. 

"(6)  Nouns  ending  in  o  or  i  after  a  consonant  form  the  plural  by  adding 
es ;  as,  hero,  heroes ;  alkali,  alkalies.  The  reason  of  this  is  that  the  regu- 
lar plural  would  give  the  short  sound  of  o  and  i=heros,  alkalis. 

95.  RULE  III.     Nouns  ending  in  y,  following  a  consonant, 
change  the  y  into  i,  and  add  es  for  the  plural ;  as  duty,  duties; 
glory,  glories. 

A  reason  for  this  irregularity  may  be  found  in  the  fact  that,  formerly, 
such  words  as  '  duty,' '  glory,'  were  written  dutie,  glorie,  and  the  plural  was 
regularly  formed  by  adding  s. 

96.  RULE  IV.    Nouns  ending  in/or/6  make  the  plural  by 
changing  /  or  fe  into  v,  and  adding  es  sounded  like  z ;  as 
wolf,  wolves  ;  wife,  wives. 

(a)  The  reason  of  this  irregularity  is  that,  in  Anglo-Saxon,  the  singular 
of  these  nouns  ended  in  ve. 

(b)  Some  few  nouns  ending  in^,  oof,  rf,  and/e,  follow  the  general  rule, 
and  add  merely  s;  as  hoof,  turf,  stuff1,  Jife,  strife,  reef. 

(c)  Wharf  makes  the  double  plural,  wharfs  and  wharves. 

97.  SAXON  NOUNS.     A  few  nouns  of  Saxon  origin  form 
their  plural  by  changing  the  vowel  sound  of  the  singular. 
They  are  man,  men;  woman,  women;  foot,  feet;  goo$e,geese; 
tooth,  teeth  ;  mouse,  mice  ;  louse,  lice. 

A  few  old  Saxon  nouns  form  their  plurals  in  en ;  as,  ox,  oxen ;  brother, 
•brethren.  Children,  the  plural  of  child,  has  a  peculiar  double  termination. 
It  is  thus  accounted  for :  The  Scandinavian  plural  ending  er  would  make 
the  word  childer  (still  to  be  heard  in  Ireland)  ;  the  English  plural  would  be 
childen.  Our  plural  is  a  compound  of  both. 

^  98.  FOREIGN  NOUNS.    Most  foreign  nouns  retain  their  for- 
eign plurals. 

1.  Pure  Latin  nouns  adopted  into  our  language  generally  retain  their 
Latin  endings  : 


32  ETYMOLOGY. 

Nouns  in  us  form  the  plural  in      i;  as,  focus,  foci. 
"  um     '  "       "      a;  as,  datum,  data, 

"a  "  "  "  "  <E  ;  as,  nebula,  nebula 
"ex  "  "  "  "  ices ;  as,  vortex,  vortices. 
"  ws  (neuter  gender)  "  era;  as,  genus,  genera. 

2.  Pure  Greek  nouns  adopted  into  our  language  retain  the  Greek  end- 
ings in  the  plural ;  thus — 

Nouns  in  is  form  the  plural  in  es ;  as,  cris/s,  crises. 

"on  "    a;  as,  phenomenon,  phenomena. 

3.  Some  words  adopted  from  other  sources  retain  their  original  plurals. 
Thus— 

Hebrew. — Cherub  becomes  cherubim. 
French. — Beau  "         beaux. 

Italian. — Virtuoso      "         virtuosi. 

99.  DOUBLE  PLURALS.     Certain  nouns  have  two  forms  of 
the  plural,  one  regular,  the  other  irregular.     These  distinc- 
tive forms  have  usually  different  meanings.     Thus — 

Sing.  Plur. 

Brother brothers  (by  birth) brethren  (of  a  community). 

Cloth cloth  (kinds  of  cloth) clothes  (garments). 

Die dies  (stamps  for  coining). . dice  (for  play). 

Genius geniuses  (men  of  talent). .  .genii  (spirits). 

Index indexes  (contents) indices  (algebraic  signs). 

Pea peas  (regular) pease  (collective). 

Penny pennies  (regular) pence  (collective). 

Staff •. . .  staves  (common  use) staffs  (military  term). 

Shot shot  (balls) shots  (number  of  rounds). 

Fish fish  (collective) fishes  (individuals). 

100.  Nouns  with  two  meanings  in  the  plural : 

Sing.  1st  Plural.  2d  Plural. 

Pain pains  (sufferings) pains  (troubles). 

Custom customs  (habits) customs  (revenue  duties). 

Letter letters  (of  the  alphabet). .  .letters  (literature). 

101.  Compound  nouns  generally  form  their  plural  by  in- 
flecting the  principal  noun  ;  as,  sons-in-law  ;  courts-martial ; 
maid-servants. 

(a)  When  the  words  are  so  closely  joined  in  sense  that  the  meaning  is 
not  complete  till  the  whole  is  known,  the  s  is  added  at  the  end ;  as,  pail- 
fuls,  cup-fuls,  forget-me  nots. 

(b)  We  may  say  either  'the  Misses  Brown,'  or  'the  Miss  Browns,'  or 
even  '  the  Misses  Browns. ' 

(c)  A  firm  of  Browns  is  named  in  England  'the  Messrs.  Brown,'  but 
we  say  '  Brown  Brothers. ' 

102.  The  following  peculiarities  are  to  be  noted : 


INFLECTION.  33 

1.  Nouns  used  only  in  the  Plural : 

Aborigines.  Entrails.  Scissors. 

Annals.  Hustings.  Shears. 

Antipodes.  Lees.  Summons. 

Archives.  Matins.  Thanks. 

Banns.  Measles.  Tidings. 

Bellows.  News.  Tongs. 

Billiards.  Nuptials.  Trowsers. 

Breeches.  Oats.  Vespers. 

Calends.  Obsequies.  Victuals. 

Credentials.  Odds.  Vitals. 

Dregs.  Pincers.  Pantaloons. 

Riches seems  to  be  plural,  but  it  is  really  singular,  being  de- 
rived from  the  French  richesse.  Riches  profit  not 
should  be  riches  profits  not. 

NeWS in  old  English  was  plural.  It  is  now  uniformly  singu- 
lar ;  as,  ill  news  runs  apace. 

Means is  to  be  used  in  the  singular  when  the  signification  is 

singular,  and  in  the  plural  when  the  signification  is 
plural.  We  may  say,  this  means  or  those  means. 

Summons has  a  regular,  derived  plural,  summonses. 

Alms is  plural  in  form,  but  is  really  singular,  being  derived 

from  the  Anglo-Saxon  celmesse. 

Politics > 

JiitJllCS /  represent  Greek  plurals,  but  are  now  treated  as  singu- 

PhysiCS \  lar.     Mathematics  is  an  improving  study.     Optics  is 

Optics the  science  of  light. 

Mathematics....  J 

2.  Nouns  the  same  in  both  Numbers  : 

Deer.  Salmon.  Cannon. 

Grouse.  Sheep.  Perch. 

Fish.  Swine.  Pike. 

Trout.  Heathen.  Fowl. 

Some  of  these  words  have  also  regular  plurals,  with  a  distributive  mean- 
ing ;  as,  fishes,  cannons,  pikes. 

3.*N"ouns  with  a  different  meaning  in  the  Plural : 


Compass compasses. 

Corn corns. 

Iron irons. 


Salt salts. 

Domino dominoes. 

Good goods. 


Exercise  19. 

A. 
Give  the  PLUKAL  of  the  following  Nouns: 

1 .  Pen  ;  desk  ;  book  ;  knife  ;  fox  ;  ox  ;  foot ;  foot-man. 

2.  Candle;  map;   cage;  calf;  class;  hat;  sky;  toy. 

B  2 


34 


ETYMOLOGY. 


3.  Cargo;  church;  monarch;  muff;  tyro;  focus;  basis. 

4.  Story;  dictum;  beau;  potato;  cherub;  log;  nebula. 

5.  Chimey;  automatum;  genus;  proof;  axis. 

6.  Criterion;  child;  woman;  wife;  kiss;  staff. 

B. 

Answer  the  following  Questions: 

1.  Give  the  two  plurals  of  die,  with  the  meaning  of  each ;  also  of  brother, 
cloth,  and  penny. 

2.  Mention  three  other  nouns  that  have  two  plurals  differing  in  meaning. 

3.  Give  three  nouns  used  only  in  the  plural,  one  signifying  a  pair  of  things. 

4.  What  is  peculiar  in  alms,  politics,  salts,  and  pains  ? 

5.  How  many  meanings  has  the  word  letter  in  the  singular  ?    How  many 
in  the  plural  ? 

6.  Mention  six  nouns  that  have  the  same  form  in  both  numbers. 

II.  CASE. 

103.  A  suffix  is  frequently  added  to  a  Noun  to  mark  the 
relation  in  which  that  noun  stands  to  other  words.     Thus, 
in  the  sun's  rays,  the  's  shows  the  relation  existing  between 
the  sim  and  its  rays — namely,  that  the  rays  proceed  from 
the  sun. 

104.  The  simple  word  and  the  suffix  are  together  called 
a  Case. 

(a)  The  old  grammarians  illustrated  the  changes  of  Case  by  the  follow- 
ing diagram : 


Ac 


The  perpendicular  line  represented  the  Nominative  (rectus).  If  this 
line,  moving  on  a  hinge  at  X,  were  to  fall  or  be  bent  downward,  it  would 
assume  the  various  oblique  positions  marked  G,  D,  etc.,  to  express  the  six 
Latin  cases,  the  Nominative,  Genitive,  Dative,  Accusative,  Vocative,  and 
Ablative. 

The  diagram  gives  origin  to  the  following  grammatical  terms : 
Case,  derived  from  the  Latin  cado,  I  fall,  each  change  being  denoted  by 
a  falling  of  the  perpendicular  line. 


INFLECTION". 


35 


Oblique  case,  meaning  any  case  except  the  Nominative  ;  the  other  cases 
being  denoted  by  the  slanting  lines. 

Decline,  declension,  derived  from  de,  down,  and  clino,  I  bend ;  the  up- 
*  right  line  being  bent  downward. 

Inflect,  inflection,  derived  from  in,  into,  audjlecto,  I  bend. 

(6)  In  certain  languages,  many  inflections  are  used  to  mark  the  several 
relations  of  Nouns,  and  each  inflection  makes  a  distinct  Case.  Thus  the 
Latin  language  had  a  change  of  form  to  express  the  relation  of  proceeding 
from  a  thing — our  'possessive:'  this  was  called  the  genitive;  as,  man^ 
homo;  man's,  or  of  a  man = homines.  But  ''to  a  man'  was  also  marked  by 
an  inflection — homing ;  the  object  of  a  transitive  verb  was  marked  by  a 
peculiar  inflection— homin-ew  ;  and  by  or  with  a  man  had  its  own  inflec- 
tion— homin-e. 

105.  Our  language,  in  its  original  form  of  Anglo-Saxon,  had 
various  inflections  of  Case  which  English  has  now  lost. 

TEACHER'S  NOTE. — The  following  Comparative  Table  will  show  the  in- 
flections of  the  Noun  '  man'  in  Latin,  Saxon,  and  English  : 


Latin. 
Singular. 
Nominative  Case . .  Homo, 

Genitive Homin-zs, 

Dative Homin-e, 

Accusative Homin-em, 

Ablative Homin-e, 

Latin. 

Plural 

Nominative Homin-es, 

Genitive. » Homin-wm, 

Dative Homin-z'6ws, 

Accusative Homin-es, 

Ablative  . . .  .^ Homin-ibus, 


Saxon. 
Singular. 
Man, 
Mann-es, 
Men, 
Man, 
Men, 

Saxon. 

Plural. 
Men, 
Mann-a, 
Mann-w?w, 
Men, 
Mann-wwz,  (with 


(with 


English. 

Man. 
Man's, 
(to  a)  Man. 

Man  (object). 
or  by)  Man. 
English. 
Plural. 
Men. 
Men's, 
(to)  Men. 

Me*n  (object), 
or  by)  Men. 


EXPLANATION. — It  will  be  seen  from  this  table  that,  while  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  had  a  much  less  elaborate  apparatus  of  Case-endings  than  the 
Latin,  modern  English  has  still  fewer  inflections  than  the  Saxon  had. 
In  fact,  we  have  lost  all  the  Case  forms  except  the  Genitive  (Possessive), 
formed  by  adding  's. 

106.  There  is  now  but  one  inflection  of  case  in  English 
nouns.  This  is  the  addition  of  an  apostrophe  with  the  letter 
s  ('s)  to  the  regular  form  of  the  noun.  Thus,  river,  river's. 
This  is  called  the  Possessive  Case. 

If  the  pupil  will  look  at  the  Saxon  word  man  in  the  table,  he  will  see 
that  the  possessive  (or  genitive)  case  was  mannes:  so  the  possessive  of 
bird  was  birdes.  It  is  in  this  Saxon  inflection  of  the  genitive  that  our  pos- 
sessive originates.  The  apostrophe  marks  merely  the  omission  of  the  e. 
The  scholar  will  understand  from  this  how  absurd  is  the  notion  of  some 
grammarians  and  others,  who  think  that  's  is  a  contraction  of  his;  as, 
John's  book— John  his  book. 


36  ETYMOLOGY. 

107.  The  unchanged  noun,  standing  as  the  chief  word  in 
the  subject  of  a  sentence,  is  called  the  Nominative  or  naming 
case ;  as,  The  President  of  the  United  States  is  elected  every 
four  years. 

108.  The  noun  used  as  object  of  a  verb  or  of  a  preposition 
is  usually  called  the  Objective  case;  but  as  its  form  is  the 
same  as  that  of  the  nominative,  it  can  not  be  regarded  as  a 
real  case. 

(a)  Except  for  the  pronouns,  the  distinction  of  nominative  and  objective 
would  not  be  kept  up,  as  the  form  of  the  noun  can  never  show  whether  it 
is  nominative  or  objective.  These  names  have  a  meaning  only  in  construc- 
tion with  verbs,  the  one  (the  nominative)  corresponding  to  the  subject  of 
the  sentence,  the  other  (the  objective)  to  the  object  of  the  sentence. 

(6)  Some  consider  our  poverty  of  case-forms  one  of  the  disadvantages 
of  English,  as  it  prevents  us  from  changing  about  in  the  position  of  our 
nouns.  In  Latin,  if  we  say  Brutus  killed  Ccesar,  it  does  not  signify  in  what 
order  we  place  these  three  words,  as  the  endings  of  the  nouns  tell  us  which 
is  he  and  which  is  him.  We  can  say  either  Brutus  Ccesarem  occidit  or 
Ccesarern  Brutus  occidit,  because  the  form  '  Ca3sarem'  always  denotes  Cae- 
sar-Am, and  the  form  'Brutus,' Brutus-Ae. 

109.  A  noun  is  said  to  be  'declined'  when  we  name  its 
three  cases. 

Declension  of  a  Noun. 

Singular  Number.  Plural  Number. 

Nominative  Case :  Man Men. 

Possessive  Case :     Man's Men's. 

Objective  Case  :       Man Men. 

GENERAL  RULE  FOR  THE  POSSESSIVE  CASE. 

110.  Possessive  Singular.    The  Possessive  Case  singular  is 
formed  by  writing  apostrophe  s  ('s)  after  the  singular  noun ; 
as,  neighbor,  neighbor's.  ^ 

111.  Possessive  Plural.  The  Possessive  Case  plural  is  formed 
by  writing  the  apostrophe  after  the  s  of  plural  nouns ;  as, 
neighbors,  neighbors'.     But  when  the  plural  does  not  end  in 
s,  the  's  is  added ;  as,  men,  men's. 

(a)  When  the  nominative  singular  ends  in  a  sound  hard  to  pronounce,  it 
has  been  usual  to  mark  the  possessive  singular  by  writing  merely  the  apos- 
trophe ;  as,  Socrates'  wife ;  conscience'  sake.  But  it  is  better  in  all  cases  to 
form  the  possessive  singular  by  writing  the  apostrophe  s  ('s).  It  is  better 
to  write  Moses's  law  than  Moses'  law ;  Charles's  book  than  Charles'  book. 
Whether  it  shall  be  pronounced  or  not  is  a  matter  of  euphony.  Men,  wom- 
en, boys,  girls,  and  sign-painters  make  many  mistakes  in  the  management 


INFLECTION.  37 

of  the  possessive.  Master  the  foregoing  rules,  and  the  matter  need  not 
puzzle  you  any  longer. 

(6)  The  apostrophe  placed  after  the  nominative  plural  of  nouns  to  form 
their  possessive  marks  a  contraction  of  es,  the  old  English  inflection  of  the 
possessive  plural.  In  irregular  plurals,  such  as  men's,  we  retain  the  s,  and 
mark  the  omission  of  the  e  by  the  apostrophe. 

112.  In  Compound  Nouns,  the  possessive  suffix  is  attached 
to  the  last  word ;  as,  heir-at-law's ;  the  Queen  of  England's. 

Exercise  20. 
A. 

Give  the  POSSESSIVE,  singular  and  plural ',  of  the  following 
Nouns : 

1.  Child;  prince;  woman;  king;  cable;  tutor. 

2.  Peril ;  mercy ;  father ;  Henry  ;  aunt ;  cat. 

3.  Charles  ;  gardener ;  brother ;  poetess ;  author ;  painter. 

4.  Sculptor;  engraver;  sister;   Socrates;  princess;  bridge. 

5.  House;  Peter;  righteousness;  ox;  thief;  sheep. 

B. 

Write  the  following — changing  the  nouns  with  prepositions 
into  POSSESSIVE  nouns : 

1.  A  cap  of  a,  boy.  2.  The  mother  of  Moses.  3.  The  dresses  of  the  ladies. 
4.  The  son  of  the  princess.  5.  The  pain-killer  of  Davis.  6.  The  wrath  of 
Achilles.  7.  The  work  of  the  men.  8.  The  wool  of  the  sheep.  9.  The  hat 
of  Mr.  Jacob.  10.  The  house  of  Mr.  Jacobs.  11.  The  store  of  the  Messrs. 
Woods.  12.  The  banking-house  of  Brown  Brothers.  13.  The  houses  of  my 
sons-in-law. 

III.  GENDER. 

113.  The  English  speech  is  the  simplest  of  all  languages  in 
its  rules  for  gender.     We  know  the  gender  of  any  noun  by 
its  sense.     If  it  denotes  a  living  being,  it  is  Masculine  or  it  is 
Feminine,  according  to  the  sex  of  the  being.    If  not  the  name 
of  a  living  being,  the  noun  is  said  to  be  Neuter;  that  is,  nei- 
ther Masculine  nor  Feminine. 

*  (a)  In  many  languages,  as  Latin,  Greek,  etc.,  a  poetical  or  figurative 
process  of  personifying  things  without  life  was  in  extensive  operation  ; 
by  this  the  distinction  of  gender  was  extended  to  nouns  generally,  and  this 
without  distinction  of  sex — the  termination  of  the  noun  deciding  its  gen- 
der. This  may  be  called  grammatical  gender ;  but  we  have  in  English  no 
such  thing.  On  this  account  our  language  is  free  from  one  of  the  main 
difficulties  of  French  gender,  namely,  the  difficulty  of  determining  the 
gender  of  any  noun,  which  determination  must  be  made  before  an  article 
or  an  adjective  can  be  used  with  it.  Thus  the  good  sugar  is  'le  bon  sucre' 
('  sucre,'  masculine),  but  the  good  pen  is  lla  bonne  plume'  ('plume,' femi- 
nine). 

(b)  The  term  Common  gender  is  applied  to  Nouns  that  may  be  either 
masculine  or  feminine  ;  as,  parent ?  child. 


38  ETYMOLOGY. 

114.  In  English,  Sex  is  usually  denoted  by  the  use  of  dis- 
tinctive words  to  name  the  Male  and  the  Female;  2^,  father, 
mother /  brother ',  sister ;  gander,  goose;  boy,  girl. 

115.  There   are   certain  suffixes  used  to  turn  Masculine 
Nouns  into  Feminines. 

(1.)  The  most  common  Feminine  suffix  is  ESS  ;  as,  actor, 

actress /  giant,  giantess;  heir,  heiress;  lion,  lioness / 

poet,  poetess. 
(2.)  The  suffix  ix  is  a  feminine  inflection  used  in  a  few 

Latin  derivatives,  as,  administrator,  administrate;/ 

executor,  executes. 
(3.)  The  suffix  ine  is  a  feminine  inflection  in  a  few  words, 

as,  hero,  heroine/  Joseph,  Joseph^/  Paul, Pauline. 

NOTES   ON   PECULIARITIES   OF   GENDER. 

(a)  The  suffix  ster  was  the  most  common  Old  English  feminine  inflec- 
tion ;  thus  webere  meant  a  male  weaver,  and  webster  meant  a  female 
weaver.  But  ster  is  now  a  masculine  termination.  This  suffix  is  now 
used  as  a  feminine  only  in  the  word  spinster;  seamstress- seam +str+ ess 
is  redundant,  containing  both  the  Saxon  inflection  ster  and  the  French  ess. 
So  with  songstress. 

(6)  The  word  vixen  contains  the  suffix  ine.  It  is  really  fox- ine = a  she- 
fox,  and  hence  is  applied  to  a  cross,  snarling  woman. 

(c)  WIDOWER.  Widow  was  in  Old  English  both  masculine  and  femi- 
nine. Afterwards  it  came  to  be  used  as  feminine  only ;  then  the  suffix  er 
was  added  to  denote  the  masculine. 

(o?)  BRIDEGROOM.  The  masculine  of  bride  is  bridegroom.  The  word 
groom  is  a  corruption  of  Anglo-Saxon  guma,  man. 

(e)  WOMAN,  the  feminine  of  man,  is  composed  of  ivi£(from  the  same 
root  as  *  weave')  and  man  (which  meant  a  human  being  of  either  sex).  The 
literal  meaning,  therefore,  is  she  that  weaves,  that  is,  the  weaver.  The  pro- 
nunciation of  the  plural  of  woman  preserves  the  old  root  wif. 

(jf)  LADY.  The  word  lord  comes  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  hlaf-ord=t\\Q 
loaf-giver.  The  y  in  lady  is  a  feminine  suffix,  and  the  word  means  literal- 
ly the  female  loaf-giver. 

(<;)  BEAU  and  BELLE  (masculine  and  feminine  of  the  French  adjective 
meaning  beautiful)  are  not  correlatives.  Beau  means  either  a  male  sweet- 
heart or  a  dandy,  while  belle  means,  not  a  female  sweetheart,  but  a  pre- 
eminently beautiful  woman. 

(A)  In  our  English  poverty  of  inflection,  we  sometimes  resort  to  the  plan 
of  prefixing  certain  sex-words,  as  sAe-bear,  /waic^-servant,  Aew-sparrow,  etc. 

116.  When  an  inanimate  object  is  represented  as  a  living 
person,  it  is  said  to  be  personified.     Thus  words  of  the  neuter 
gender  become  masculine  or  feminine  : 

For  Winter  came  :  the  wind  was  his  whip. 
One  choppy  finger  was  on  his  lip  : 
He  had  torn  the  cataracts  from  the  hills, 
And  they  clanked  at  his  girdle  like  manacles. 


INFLECTION.  39 

In  the  same  way  the  sailor  speaks  of  his  ship,  and  the  hunter  of  his  gun, 
as  she.  We  speak  of  the  sun  as  he,  and  of  the  moon  as  she;  but  our  An- 
glo-Saxon forefathers  spoke  of  the  moon  as  he  and  the  sun  as  she. 

Exercise  21. 
Tell  the  GENDER  of  the  following  Words : 

1.  Cow.     Lass.     Mistress.     Poet.     Gander. 

2.  Widower.     Aunt.     Uncle.     Priestess.     Goddess. 

3.  Lamb.     Horse.     Cattle.     Hogs.     Pigs.     Chickens. 

4.  Pauline.     Bridegroom.     Ship.     Sun.     Moon. 

5.  Husband.     Wife.     Steer.     Heifer.     Gentleman.     Lady. 

Answer  the  following  Questions  : 

1 .  Gender  in  English  is  a  matter  of  what  ? 

2.  How  many  sexes  are  there?     How  many  Genders  in  English  Gram- 
mar? 

3.  How  many  ways  are  there  of  distinguishing  sex  ? 

4.  What  is  peculiar  in  seamstress  and  songstress  ? 

5.  What  is  the  most  common  termination  for  the  feminine  ? 

G.  Mention  two  nouns  which  have  formed  the  masculine  from  the  femi- 
nine. 

2.  The  Pronoun. 
I.  PEESONAL  PRONOUNS. 

117.  The  English  Personal  Pronouns  are  jTfor  the  first  per- 
son ;  You  for  the  second  person ;  He,  she,  and  it  for  the  third 
person. 

118.  The  Pronouns  of  the  First  and  of  the  Second  Person 
are  inflected  to  express  Number  and  Case ;  the  Pronoun  of 
the  Third  Person  is  inflected  to  denote  Number^  Case,  and 
Gender. 

119.  The  First  Personal  Pronoun  is  I,  in  the  nominative 
case.    Its  possessive  case  is  my  or  mine.    Its  objective  is  me. 

The  nominative  plural  of  I  is  We  ;  the  possessive  plural  is 
our  or  ours  ;  the  objective  plural  is  us. 

120.  The  Second  Personal  Pronoun  is  You,  in  the  nomina- 
tive case.     Its  possessive  case  is  your  or  yours.     Its  object- 
ive case  is  You,  the  same"  as  the  nominative  case. 

The  old  English  Personal  Pronoun  of  the  Second  person  singular  was 
thou  (Anglo-Saxon  thu,  Latin  fa),  but  this  form  is  now  obsolete  except  in 
the  solemn  style. 

The  plural  of  You  is  you ;  the  possessive,  your  or  yours ; 
and  the  objective,  you,  the  same  as  the  singular. 


40  ETYMOLOGY. 

The  old  English  second  person  plural  was  ye  (Anglo-Saxon  ge),  but  you 
has  taken  its  place  in  common  use,  just  as  you  has  succeeded  thou  in  the 
singular. 

121.  The  Third  Personal  Pronoun  is  he  for  the  masculine 
gender,  nominative  case.  Its  possessive  case  is  his.  Its  ob- 
jective case  is  him. 

The  Third  Personal  Pronoun,  in  the  nominative  case,  is  she 
for  the  feminine  gender.  Its  possessive  case  is  her  or  hers. 
Its  objective  case  is  her. 

The  Third  Personal  Pronoun  is  it  for  the  neuter  gender, 
nominative  case.  Its  possessive  case  is  its.  Its  objective 
case  is  it. 

They  is  the  nominative  plural  of  he,  of  she,  and  of  it. 

The  possessive  plural  of  these  pronouns  is  their  or  theirs; 
their  objective  plural  is  them. 

INFLECTIONS    OF   THE   PERSONAL   PRONOUNS. 


Nom. 

Poss. 

O&J? 

Nom. 

Poss. 

Olj. 

First  Person, 

I, 

my 

or  mine, 

me. 

We, 

our    or  ours, 

us. 

Second, 

You, 

your 

or  yours, 

you. 

You, 

your  or  yours, 

you. 

(Mas. 

He, 

his, 

him, 

,^ 

Third, 

•\Feni. 
(Neut. 

She, 
It, 

her 

its, 

or  hers, 

her. 
it. 

j 

They, 

their  or  theirs, 

them. 

Solemn  style. — Thou,  thy  or  thine,  thee.    |    Ye,  your  or  yours,  you. 

NOTES    ON   THE   PERSONAL   PRONOUNS. 

(a)  The  Teacher  will  find  in  the  Appendix  a  table  of  the  declension  of 
the  Anglo-Saxon  Personal  Pronouns.  It  throws  much  light  on  the  present 
forms  of  our  English  Pronoun. 

(ft)  The  Pronouns  of  the  First  and  of  the  Second  Person  have  two  forms 
of  the  Possessive  Case :  my,  mine ;  your,  yours  ;  our,  ours ;  also  the  Third 
feminine  has  her,  hers.  The  former  of  each  pair  is  used  attributively,  that 
is,  when  the  Noun  qualified  follows  it ;  the  latter  is  used  predicatively,  that 
is,  when  the  Noun  is  omitted.  Thus — 

f  my    }  f  mine. 

|  her    I  j  hers. 

This  is  <  our    >  house.     But,  This  house  is  <  ours. 

j  your  1  1  yours.  I 

( their  J  ( theirs.  J 

The  former  set  may  be  called  Adjective  Possessives  ;  the  latter  Independent 
Possessives.  Be  careful  never  to  write  the  Independent  Possessives  with 
an  apostrophe  before  the  s  ;  that  is,  never  write  our's,  their's,  etc. 

(c)  In  such  sentences  as  '  Give  me  [him,  her,  you,  us]  a  book'  the  Pro- 
nouns are  really  Anglo-Saxon  datives,  and  hence  equivalent  to  to  me,  to 
him,  etc. 

(d)  It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  the  word  its  did  not  exist  in  English  un- 
til about  250  years  ago.     It  is  not  found  in  our  English  Bible  (translated 


INFLECTION.  41 

1611).  The  place  of  its  was  filled  by  his,  which  was  the  possessive  case  of 
hit  (it)  just  as  much  as  of  he.  The  use  of  its  arose  from  a  feeling  of  clum- 
siness in  employing  the  same  word  (his)  for  the  possessive  of  both  the  mas- 
culine and  the  neuter  pronouns.  N.  B.  —  Never  write  its  with  the  apostrophe 
(it's)  when  you  mean  the  possessive  pronoun. 

(e)  A  reflexive  form  is  obtained  for  the  personal  pronouns,  in  the  nomi- 
native and  in  the  objective  case,  by  adding  self  or  selves  to  the  possessives  of 
the  first  and  of  the  second  person,  and  to  the  objectives  of  the  third  person. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

1  .     Myself,  Ourselves. 


(Herself,    ) 

3.  J  Himself,   [  Themselves. 

(itself.       ) 

The  word  self  is  originally  an  adjective,  or  attribute  of  emphasis.  Its  use 
is  twofold:  ls£,  To  express  emphasis  ;  as,  Himself  must  strike  the  blow. 
The  compound  pronoun  is  in  like  manner  added  to  the  simple  ;  as,  I  my- 
self wrote  the  letter.  2e?,  To  form  Reflexive  Pronouns,  by  means  of  which 
we  express  that  the  object  and  the  doer  of  an  action  are  the  same  person 
or  thing  ;  as,  He  killed  himself. 

(f)  The  word  own  joined  to  the  Adjective  Possessives  both  adds  empha- 
sis and  has  a  reflexive  meaning  ;  as,  This  is  my  own,  my  native  land. 

II.  RELATIVE  PRONOUNS. 

122.  Of  the  Relative  Pronouns,  who,  which,  what,  and  that, 
'  who'  is  the  only  one  that  has  inflections.      Who  is  thus  de- 
clined : 

Nom.  Poss.  Obj. 

Sing,  and  Plur  .......  Who,          whose,          whom. 

123.  *  Whose'  is  sometimes  employed  as  the  possessive  of 
*  which.' 

124.  Compound  Relative  Pronouns  are  formed  by  adding 
to  the  simple  pronouns  the  affixes  so,  ever,  and  soever;  as, 
loho-so,  which-ever,  what-soever. 

The  general  force  of  these  affixes  is  to  imply  a  universal  correlative  ; 
as,  '  Who-so-ever  hateth  his  brother  is  a  murderer'—  Every  man  without  ex- 
ception that  hateth,  etc. 

IIL  DEMONSTRATIVE  PRONOUNS. 

125.  The  only  Demonstrative  Pronouns  that  have  any  in- 
flections are  'this'  and  'that.'     The  former  has  these  for  the 
plural  ;  the  latter,  those. 


42  ETYMOLOGY. 

Exercise  22. 
Tell  the  KIND,  NUMBER,  GENDER,  and  CASE  of  each  PRONOUN. 

1.  She;  whose;  them:  its;  our;  me.  2.  Their;  us;  he;  hers;  they;  I. 
3.  Me ;  whom  ;  mine  ;  yours  ;  who.  4.  They ;  thee  ;  my ;  him ;  ye ;  which. 
5.  Ours  ;  yours  ;  that ;  her  ;  theirs.  6.  We  ;  you  ;  his  ;  it ;  what ;  her. 
7.  Her  father  gave  her  a  book.  8.  The  flower  that  you  brought  me  is  dead. 
9.  Whom  call  we  gay?  10.  He  shall  not  touch  us.  11.  These  are  our  horses; 
those  are  theirs.  12.  My  brother  gave  me  that  book  a  year  ago. 

3.  The  Adjective. 

126.  Common  Adjectives  have  but  one  inflection,  the  change 
to  express  differences  of  degree.     The  inflection  of  adjectives 
is  called  Comparison. 

In  many  languages,  adjectives  are  inflected  to  mark  gender,  number, 
and  case,  and  in  these  respects  they  are  made  to  agree  with  their  nouns. 
A  Latin  adjective  like  bonus,  good,  followed  through  all  its  inflections,  as- 
sumes nearly  forty  different  shapes.  In  Anglo-Saxon  there  were  several 
such  inflections.  Thus,  in  Anglo-Saxon,  the  adjective  'good,'  used  with  a 
masculine  noun,  was  goda,  with  a  feminine  noun  gode,  and  with  a  neuter 
noun  gode  ;  and  the  nominative  plural  was  godaw.  Our  language  gains  in 
simplicity  by  discarding  these  adjective  inflections,  and  loses  only  a  cer- 
tain power  of  varying  the  order  of  words. 

127.  The  degrees  of  comparison  are  the  Positive,  the  Com- 
parative,  and  the  Superlative. 

128.  I.  The  Positive  is  the  adjective  in  its  simple  form ;  as, 
a  tall  man. 

129.  II.  The  Comparative  is  formed  by  suffixing  er  to  the 
positive ;  as,  taller,  shorter.     It  is  used  when  two  objects  are 
compared,  and  indicates  that  the  one  possesses  the  quality  in 
a  greater  degree  than  the  other. 

130.  The  Superlative  is  formed  by  adding  est  to  the  posi- 
tive ;  as,  tallest,  shorted.     It  is  used  when  more  than  two  ob- 
jects are  compared,  and  shows  that  one  possesses  the  quality 
in  a  greater  degree  than  all  the  rest. 

131.  When  the  positive  has  more  than  two  syllables,  the 
adjective  is  not  compared  by  inflection,  but  the  Comparative 
is  formed  by  the  auxiliary  more  and  the  Superlative  by  the 
auxiliary  most.     This  is  to  prevent  forming  many-syllabled 
adjectives.     Thus  more  beautiful  sounds  better  than  ~beauti- 
fuller. 

(a)  If  euphony  allows,  long  adjectives  may  be  compared  with  er  and  est. 
And,  on  the  other  hand,  even  a  monosyllabic  adjective  may  be  compared 
by  more  or  most,  if  the  ear  be  satisfied. 


INFLECTION.  43 

(£>)  A  comparative  and  a  superlative  of  diminution  are  formed  by  means 
of  less  and  least ;  as,  less  grateful,  least  grateful. 

(c)  The  Teacher  will  call  the  pupil's  attention  to  the  rules  of  spelling 
that  come  into  play  on  the  addition  of  the  suffixes  er  and  est. 

(d}  The  auxiliary  mode  of  comparison  is  derived  from  the  Norman- 
French  ;  the  inflected  mode  is  old  Saxon. 

132.  The  following  are  Irregular  Comparisons: 

POSITIVE.  COMPAEATIVE.  SUPERLATIVE. 

Good,  Better,  Best. 

Well,  Better,  Best. 

Evil,  Worse,  Worst. 

Bad,  Worse,  Worst. 

Little,  Less,  Least. 

Many,  More,  Most. 

Much,  More,  Most. 

Far,  forth,  Farther,  further,  Farthest,  furthest. 

Near,  Nearer,  Nearest  or  next. 

Late,  Later  or  latter,  Latest  or  last. 

Old,  Older  or  elder,  Oldest  or  eldest. 

Hind,  Hinder,  Hindmost. 

Up,  Upper,  Upmost. 

Out,  Utter  or  outer,  Utmost. 

NOTES   ON   THE    IRREGULAR   COMPARISONS. 

(!•)  Good:  Better  and  best  [bet-est]  are  the  comparative  and  the  superla- 
tive of  the  obsolete  Anglo-Saxon  bet,  a  synonym  of  good. 

(2.)  Bad J  Worse  and  worst  are  the  comparative  and  superlative  of  the  ob- 
solete Anglo-Saxon  weor,  a  synonym  of  bad. 

(3.)  Oldl  The  regular  comparative  and  superlative  are  used  when  old  is 
contrasted  with  new ;  the  irregular  forms  when  it  is  contrasted 
'with young;  as,  the  older  house  belongs  to  the  elder  brother.  But 
older  and  oldest  are  often  applied  to  animate  beings ;  elder  and 
eldest  never  to  inanimate. 

(4.)  Late:  The  regular  forms  later  and  latest  are  opposed  to  ' earlier'  and 
4  earliest ;'  the  irregular  forms  latter  and  last  are  opposed  to  '  for- 
mer' and  '  first.'  Last  is  a  compression  of  late-est. 

(5.)  Farther,  further  I  Farther,  from  far,  means  more  distant,  and  is  op- 
posed to  nearer ;  as,  I  prefer  the  farther  house  to  the  nearer  one. 
Further,  from  forth,  means  more  advanced  or  additional;  as,  I 
shall  mention  a  further  reason. 

(6.)  Inner,  inmost,  have  no  positive:  down,  downmost,  and  top,  topmost, 
have  no  comparative ;  nether,  nethermost,  are  the  comparative 
and  superlative  of  neath.  &T  The  suffix  most,  in  these  superla- 
tives, is  not  the  adverb  'most.'  It  is  really  a  double  superlative 
ending,  compounded  of  the  two  Anglo-Saxon  endings  ma  and  ost, 
\>oth=est.  Hence  foremost— fore -t- ma + ost. 

(7.)  Certain  comparatives  in  ior,  derived  from  the  Latin,  as  'interior,'  'ex- 
terior,' 'superior,'  'inferior,'  'anterior,'  'posterior,'  'prior,'  'ulte- 
rior,' 'senior,'  'junior,'  'major,'  'minor,'  are  not  proper  English 
comparatives.  They  have  not  the  English  ending ;  nor  are  they 


44  ETYMOLOGY. 

followed  by  than'  in  composition,  but  by  '  to ; '  thus  we  do  not 
say  'senior  than  his  brother, 'but  'senior  to  his  brother.'  They 
share  this  peculiarity  with  a  few  adjectives  of  Anglo-Saxon  or- 
igin ;  SiB,  former,  elder,  latter,  hinder,  under,  inner,  etc. 
(8.)  Adjectives  expressing  qualities  that  do  not  admit  of  change  of  degree 
are  not  compared.  EXAMPLES:  'Certain,'  'dead,'  'empty,', 
'extreme,'  'false,'  'full,'  'infinite,'  'perfect,'  'complete,'  'su- 
preme,' 'universal,'  'round,'  'straight,'  'square,'  'lend,'  'cor- 
rect.' 

Many  of  these  Adjectives  are  compared  in  colloquial  use  and  even  by 
good  writers,  and  such  comparison  is  allowable  on  the  theory  that  these 
adjectives  are  not  used  in  their  strict  sense.  However,  we  can  generally 
avoid  such  comparisons.  In  place  of  saying  'more  perfect,'  say  'more 
nearly  perfect;'  in  place  of  saying  'more  complete,'  say  'more  copious  j' 
in  place  of  saying  '  rounder, '  say  '  more  nearly  round. ' 

Exercise  23. 

Give  the  COMPAEATIYE  and  the  SUPERLATIVE  forms  of  the 
following  ADJECTIYES  : 

1.  Great;  good;  wise;  ill;  little;  short;  bad;  late. 

2.  Near ;  fore  ;  much  ;  old  ;  frugal ;  few  ;  valuable  ;  many. 

3.  Patient ;  amiable  ;  high  ;  low  ;  pretty ;  black  ;  rich  ;  heavy. 

4.  Hot ;  dangerous  ;  fair ;  far ;  gentle ;  bright ;  bitter ;  green. 

5.  Calm  ;  gay ;  hard  ;  useful ;  red  ;  light ;  truthful ;  swift. 

6.  Large ;  soft ;  gentle  ;  tall ;  modest ;  merry ;  rough ;  dark. 

4.  The  Adverb. 

133.  Some  ADVERBS  are  inflected  to  express  degrees  of 
comparison  ;  as,  He  calls  oftener  than  he  writes. 

134.  The  comparison  of  Adverbs  follows  the  same  rules  as 
that  of  Adjectives ;  as,  soon,  sooner,  soonest  y  pleasantly,  more 
pleasantly,  most  pleasantly. 

Many  Adverbs,  from  the  nature  of  their  meaning,  can  not  be  compared ; 
as,  then,  now,  yesterday. 

135.  The   following   Adverbs,  like   the    Adjectives   with 
which  they  correspond,  are  irregularly  compared  :  well,  ill, 
badly,  much,  little,  far,  forth. 

The  Adverb  rather  is  the  comparative  of  an  Old  English  Adjective 
rathe,  meaning  early ;  thus — 

The  rathe  primrose  which  forsaken  dies. — Milton. 

'Rather'  means  earlier  or  sooner :  I  should  rather  read  than  write — that 
is,  sooner  read  than  write. 

Exercise  24. 

A. 

Give  the  COMPAEATIYE  and  the  SUPERLATIVE  forms  of  the 
following  ADVERBS  : 

1.  Largely ;  plainly ;  badly ;  wholly ;  brightly. 

2.  Completely ;  little  ;  possibly ;  sweetly ;  far ;  well. 


INFLECTION.  45 

B. 

Distinguish  beticeen  ADJECTIVES  and  ADVERBS,  remembering 
that  Adjectives  belong  to  Nouns,  and  Adverbs  to  Verbs, 
Adjectives,  and  other  Adverbs. 

1.  I  have  seen  better  faces. 

2.  He  likes  this  better. 

3.  The  more  mildly  I  spoke,  the  more  insolently  he  answered,  and  there- 
fore the  more  punishment  he  deserves. 

4.  I  have  long  wished  to  see  her. 

5.  I  have  a  long  letter  from  her. 
G.  Much  fruit.     I  love  him  much. 

5.  The  Verb. 

136.  The  VERB  is  the  most  highly  inflected  of  all  the  Parts 
of  Speech.     This  comes  from  the  fact  that  the  Verb  makes 
statements;  and  that  the  action  stated  may  be  done  by  dif- 
ferent persons,  at  various  times,  and  under  several  conditions. 
"We  may  say  he  strikes  or  they  strike;  I  strike  or  I  struck; 
strike,  but  hear ;  We  shall  strike,  etc. 

137.  The  Inflections  of  the  Verb  are  to  express  Time,  Per- 
son, Number,  and  Manner.    Verbs  are  said  to  have  also  Voice, 
and  this  is  explained  farther  on  (see  1"  172-176). 

I.  TENSE. 

138.  TENSE  (from  the  Latin  tempus, c  time')  is  a  change  in 
the  form  of  the  Verb  to  express  the  time  of  an  action. 

139.  There  are  three  natural  divisions  of  time — the  present, 
the  past,  and  the  future.     There  are,  therefore,  three  primary 
Tenses  —  the  Present  Tense,  the  Past  Tense,  and  the  Future 

"Tense. 

140.  The  Present  Tense  is  the  simple  form  of  the  Verb,  and 
expresses  what  is  or  is  doing  when  the  statement  is  made ; 
as,  I  walk,  I  write. 

141.  The  Past  Tense  is  formed  from  the  present;  it  ex- 
presses what  was  or  was  done  before  the  statement  is  made ; 
as,  I  walked,  I  wrote. 

142.  Verbs  generally  form  their  Past  Tense  from  the  Pres- 
ent Tense  by  suffixing  ed ;  as,  walk,  walked.     Some  old  En- 
glish verbs  form  the  Past  Tense  by  a  change  of  the  root-vow- 
el;  as,  write,  wrote. 


46  ETYMOLOGY. 

143.  The  first  class  are  called  Regular  Verbs,  the  second 
class  Irregular,  old,  or  strong  Verbs. 

(a)  Of  the  four  thousand  verbs  in  the  English  language,  all  but  about 
one  hundred  and  fifty  form  their  past  tense  according  to  the  general  rule, 
that  is,  by  suffixing  -ed,  and  hence  are  regular. 

(&)  The  suffix  -ed,  which  is  the  inflection  of  the  East  Tense,  is  a  con- 
traction of  the  word  did.  Thus,  loved  is  'I  love-did,'  or,  as  we  still  say, 
'IdidlovQ.' 

144.  The  Future  Tense  expresses  what  is  to  be  or  is  to  be 
done  after  the  statement  is  made;  as,  I  shall  walk, You  wiU 
write. 

145.  The  Future  Tense  in  English  is  formed,  not  by  inflec- 
tion, or  a  change  of  the  word,  but  by  the  use  of  a  helping 
word  called  an  auxiliary.     This  word  is  shall  or  will. 

(a)  Many  languages  form  their  future  by  inflections :  thus  the  Latin  for 
1 1  shall  love'  is  ama&o  (from  amo,  I  love).  We  get  our  way  of  marking 
future  time  from  the  Anglo-Saxon,  which  used  sceal  and  wille,  *  shall'  and 
4  will,'  thus  :  i  ic  sceal  niman,'  or  '  ic  wille  niman,'  which  literally  means  I 
owe  to  take,  I  will  to  take. 

(6)  Shall  implies  obligation  or  duty — its  original  signification  being  to 
owe.  Will  implies  wish  or  pleasure — the  exercise  of  will.  There  are 
many  nice  points  about  the  use  of  shall  and  will  with  pronouns  of  the  dif- 
ferent persons.  These  points  are  explained  under  Syntax. 

146.  There  are  three  Secondary  Tenses — the  Present  Per- 
fect, the  Past  Perfect,  and  the  Future  Perfect.     These  tenses 
are  formed,  not  by  inflections,  but  by  the  use  of  auxiliaries. 
The  auxiliary  have  is  used  to  form  the  Present  Perfect,  I  have 
walked ;  the  auxiliary  had  to  form  the  Past  Perfect,  I  had 
walked  ;  and  the  auxiliary  shall  have  to  form  the  Future 
Perfect,  I  shall  have  walked. 

II.  PERSON  AND  NUMBER. 

147.  As  there  is  a  Personal  Pronoun  for  each  of  the  three 
persons — 

1st  Person,  I ;  2d  Persow,You;  3d  Person,  He  (She,  It);— 
and  as  each  Pronoun  has  a  Plural  number — 

1st  Pers.  PZ.,We ;  2d  Pers.  PL,  You  ;  3d  Pers.  PL,  They— 

so  any  Verb  is  said  to  be  of  the  First  Person,  Second  Person, 
or  Third  Person^  and  of  the  Singular  or  of  the  Plural  Num- 
ber,  according  to  which  one  of  these  Pronouns  it  is  used  with. 


INFLECTION.  47 

148.  Thus: 

The  Verb  walk  in 

I  walk is  said  to  be  in  the  1st  Person  Singular. 

Yon  walk "        "         "       2d        " 

He  (she,  it)  walks.       "         "        "       3d        "  " 

We  walk "         "         "       1st  Person  Plural. 

You  walk «        «        "       2d 

They  walk "         "         "       3d 

(a)  Take  notice  that  the  only  inflection  or  change  in  the- Verbs  as  thus 
given  (present  tense,  indicative  mood)  is  in  the  Third  Person,  singular, 
which  takes  s. 

(b)  In  many  languages  the  Verb  itself  is  inflected,  that  is,  it  changes  its 
termination  in  every  person  and  in  both  numbers.     Thus  in  Latin  : 

I  love  .» was  Ego  amo. 


Thou  lovest 
He  loves 
We  love 
You  love 
They  love 


Tu  amas. 
Ille  amat. 
Nos  amamus. 
Vos  amatis. 
Illi  amant. 


Six  inflections  in  Latin  ;  two  inflections  in  English. 
The  old  Saxon  verb  had  more  inflections  than  our  English  verb  now  has. 
Thus  in  Saxon : 

I  love was  Ic  1 

Thou  lovest 

He  loves 

We  love 

You  love 

They  love 


Thu  Mast. 
He  lufath. 
We  hifiath. 
Ge  Miath. 
Hi  Infiath. 


Four  inflections  in  Saxon  ;  two  in  English. 

(c)  The  common  form  of  our  second  person  singular  is  You  love,  and  of 
our  third  person  singular,  He  loves ;  but  we  retain  from  Old  English  the 
forms  thou  lovest,  he  loveth.  These  are  used  in  poetry  and  prayer,  and 
are  called  the  solemn  or  ancient  style.  The  inflections  est  and  eth  are  re- 
mains of  the  Saxon  inflections  ast  [2d  pers.  sing.]  and  ath  [3d  pers.  sing.]. 

III.  MOOD. 
149.  When  we  say 

He  writes,     . 

we  make  a  statement  in  a  very  different  manner  from  when 
we  say, 

If  he  write,  I  will  answer ; 

and  very  different  also  from  saying 

We  may  write  to-morrow ; 
and  very  different  also  from 

Write  me  a  letter ; 
and  different  from 

Scholars  learn  to  write  verbs  by  practice. 


48  ETYMOLOGY. 

150.  These  different  ways  of  making  a  statement  are  called 
Moods.     Hence  Mood  (from  the  Latin  modus,  manner)  is  a 
grammatical  term  meaning  the  manner  of  making  a  state- 
ment.    We  count  five  Moods  in  English. 

151.  INDICATIVE  MOOD. — The  statement  of  &  fact,  or  of  a 
matter  taken  as  a  fact,  is  called  the  Indicative  Mood ;  as,  You 
write.     This  mood  is  also  used  in  asking  questions. 

152.  "When  this  Mood  is  introduced  by  the  conditional  con- 
junctions if,  though,  unless,  etc.,  it  may  be  called  the  condi- 
tional form  of  the  Indicative ;  as,  If  he  wrote,  I  did  not  re- 
ceive his  letter ;  Though  old  age  comes  upon  us,  we  need  not 
be  unhappy. 

NOTE.  Do  not  fall  into  the  mistake  of  thinking  that  the  little  words  if, 
though,  etc.,  necessarily  make  a  verb  some  other  mood  than  the  Indica- 
tive (namely,  the  Subjunctive).  A  verb  is  Indicative  when  it  states  a  fact 
real  or  conditional,  and  this  whether  used  alone  or  with  some  conditional 
conjunction.  Sometimes,  indeed,  a  verb  with  if  or  though  before  it  is  not 
in  the  indicative,  but  in  the  so-called  subjunctive ;  and  this  is  explained  in 
f 157-161. 

153.  The  Indicative  Mood  is  used  in  all  the  six  tenses. 

154.  POTENTIAL  MOOD. — The  Potential  Mood  is  a  way  of 
making  a  statement  by  means  of  the  auxiliary  verbs  may, 
can,  must,  might,  could,  would,  and  should ;   as,  'You  must 
study  this  lesson  ;'  '  We  may  be  happy  yet.'     It  expresses 
power,  contingency,  duty,  and  some  other  relations  that  will 
be  better  understood  when  we  take  up  the  full  verb. 

Some  languages  express  the  potential  mood  by  inflection.  Thus,  Latin, 
Amo,  I  love ;  Amarera,  I  may  love.  We  form  it  with  the  auxiliaries  may, 
can,  etc.  These  were  complete  verbs  in  Anglo-Saxon,  but  they  have  now 
lost  all  their  forms  except  as  auxiliaries.  The  literal  meaning  of  the  form 
'I  may  love'  is  I  may  to  love,  i.  e.,  I  am  able  to  love.  Can  io  from  the 
Anglo-Saxon  cunnan,  to  be  able.  I  can  walk = I  am  able  to  walk. 

155.  A  conditional  form  of  the  Potential  Mood  is  obtained 
by  the  use  of  one  of  the  conditional  conjunctions  (if,  though, 
etc.)  with  the  verb;  thus,  If  I  may  love;  if  you  may  write. 

156.  The  Potential  Mood  is  used  in  four  tenses — present, 
past,  present  perfect,  past  perfect. 

157.  SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. — There  is  a  little  fragment  of  the 
verb,  called  the  Subjunctive  Mood,  that  has  puzzled  people  a 
great  deal.     The  matter  is  really  very  simple. 

158.  The  only  difference  between  the  Subjunctive  Mood  and 


INFLECTION.  49 

the  Indicative  Mood  is  in  the  third  person  singular  of  two  of 
the  tenses,  the  present  and  the  present  perfect.     Thus — 

Indicative,  Present.  Subjunctive  Present. 

(If,  though,  etc.),  he  loves.        (If,  though,  etc.),  he  love. 

Indicative  Pres.  Perfect.  Subjunctive  Pres.  Perfect. 

(If  or  though)  he  has  loved.    (If  or  though)  he  have  loved. 

159.  The  explanation  of  these  differences  is,  that  in  what 
is  called  the  Subjunctive  Mood  there  is  a  little  word  left  out 
— either  the  word  will,  or  the  words  may,  can,  should. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1.  If  he  see  the  signal,  he  will  come,  is  the  same  as,  If  he 

shall  see  the  signal,  etc. 

2.  Though  he  slay  me,  yet  will  I  trust  in  him,  is  the  same 

as,  Though  he  may  slay  me. 

160.  Hence  you  see  that  the  Subjunctive  Mood  is  really  an 
abbreviated  form,  either  of  the  Indicative  Mood  (if  SH^LL  is 
the  word  omitted)  or  of  the  Potential  Mood  (if  MAY,  CAN, 
SHOULD,  is  understood). 

161.  People  nowadays  do  not  pay  much  attention  to  the 
nice  distinctions  formerly  made  between  '  if  he  loves'  and  '  if 
he  love.'    In  fact,  the  little  fragment  of  the  Subjunctive  Mood 
is  rapidly  disappearing  from  our  language. 

(a)  It  is  hoped  that  the  foregoing  explanation  may  serve  to  make -plain 
a  matter  which  has  been  darkened  by  many  words.  There  is  really  no 
such  thing,  in  modern  English,  as  a  4  subjunctive  mood' — the  so-called  sub- 
junctives being  mere  elliptical  expressions.  A  sensible  way  of  parsing  the 
(Subjunctive  Mood  when  it  occurs  would  be  to  call  it  either  the  '  Conditional 
form  of  the  indicative'  (if  will  be  understood),  or  the  conditional  form  of 
the  potential  (if  may,  can,  might,  could  be  understood). 

(/>)  Were  it  not  for  the  verb  to  be  (which  has  something  like  a  subjunctive 
form,  owing  to  its  being  made  up  of  two  different  Saxon  verbs),  even  the 
name '  subjunctive'  would  not  be  worth  keeping  up. 

162.  IMPERATIVE  MOOD. — The  Imperative  Mood  of  a  verb 
is  its  use  in  commanding ;  as,  Go  to  bed ;  Else  early ;  Charge, 
Chester,  charge  ! 

163.  The  Imperative  Mood  has  but  one  tense,  the  Present. 

164.  The  Infinitive  Mood  is  the  name  of  the  action,  un- 
limited (from  Latin  in,  not,  and  finis,  a  limit)  by  Number  or 
Person.     It  is  generally  preceded  by  the  sign  to,  but  not  al- 
ways ;  as,  I  like  to  sing  ;  we  saw  him  run.     The  Infinitive  is 
really  a  Noun. 

C 


50  ETYMOLOGY. 

165.  The  Infinitive  is  said  to  have  two  tenses — the  Present 
and  the  Perfect. 

(a)  Strictly  speaking,  the  infinitive  is  not  a  Mood  at  all.  This  form  of 
the  verb  has  no  subject,  and  no  limitations  of  number,  person,  or  time.  It 
can  not  make  a  statement.  Its  chief  use  is  as  the  subject  or  as  the  object  in 
a  sentence — and  whatever  is  subject  or  object  must  be  essentially  a  noun. 

(6)  The  Anglo-Saxon  Infinitive  had  two  terminations,  an  and  anne.  Be- 
fore the  latter  form  to  was  used  ;  as,  baernaw ;  (to)  baern-awwe,  about  to 
burn. 

(c)  The  ROOT,  or  simplest  form  of  a  verb,  is  the  infinitive  without  to. 

166.  PARTICIPLES.—  There  is  a  peculiar  form  of  the  verb 
which  is  called  the  Participle,  because  it  shares  or  participates 
in  the  functions  of  the  noun,  the  adjective,  and  the  verb. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1.  Noun  use. — The  crossing  of  the  Potomac  was  made  in  the  month  of  May. 

2.  Adjective  use. — The  crossing  army  was  flushed  with  victory. 

3.  Verb  use. — The  army  was  crossing  the  Potomac  and  marching  on  Fred- 

erick City. 

•SiT  When  you  meet  a  participial  form,  call  it  a  noun  if  it  has  the  use  of 
a  noun  ('  Walking  is  good  exercise'),  an  adjective  if  it  has  the  use  of  an 
adjective  ('Running  water  is  sweet'),  and  a  verb  if  it  has  the  use  of,  or 
forms  part  of  a  verb  ('John  is  walking ,'  'is  running'). 

167.  There  are  three  Participles,  the  Present ;,  or  Progressive, 
the  Pasty  or  Complete,  and  the  Perfect  Participle. 

168.  The  Present  Participle  in  all  verbs  is  made  by  suffix- 
ing -ing  to  the  root ;  as,  walk-ing. 

169.  The  Past  Participle  of  all  Regular  Verbs  (see  1 143)  is 
formed  by  suffixing  ed  to  the  root ;  as,  walk-ed.     The  Past 
Participle  of  Irregular  Verbs  is  formed  in  some  other  way ; 
as,  struck,  taken,  cut.     (See  list  of  Irregular  Verbs,  ^  183.) 

170.  The  Perfect  Participle  is  formed  by  joining  the  auxil- 
iary having  with  the  Past  Participle  of  the  verb;  ^having 
loved. 

171.  VEEBAL  IN  -ING. — There  is  a  verbal  form  in  -ing  that 
is  not,  strictly  speaking,  a  Participle  at  all,  but  that  is  really 
an  Infinitive.    Thus,  Erring  is  human  =  To  err  is  human ; 
We  saw  the  ship,  sinking  in  the  waves  =:Wfc  saw  the  ship 
(to)  sink  in  the  waves. 

For  an  explanation  of  this  important  form,  the  Infinitive  in  -ing,  the 
Teacher  is  referred  to  the  Appendix. 


INFLECTION.  51 

IV.  VOICE. 

172.  Voice  expresses  the  relation  of  the  subject  of  the  verb 
to  the  action  of  the  verb,  as  done  or  received;  as,  John  strikes; 
John  is  struck. 

173.  All  Transitive  verbs  may  be  put  in  two  forms.     In 
the  first  form  the  doer  of  the  act  is  made  the  subject ;  in  the 
second  form,  what  was  before  the  object  of  the  verb  becomes 
its  subject.     EXAMPLE  : 

First  form.  Watt  [subject]  invented  the  steam-engine 
[object]. 

Second  form.  The  steam-engine  [previous  object ;,  now 
subject]  was  invented  by  Watt. 

174.  The  first  form  is  usually  called  the  Active  Voice  ;  the 
second  form,  the  Passive  Voice.    The  Active  Voice  represents 
the  subject  as  doing  something ;  the  Passive  Voice  represents 
something  done-to  the  subject. 

175.  The  Present  Participle  of  the  Passive  Voice  is  the 
same  in  form  as  the  Past  Participle  of  the  Active  Voice. 
Thus,  loved,  Past  Participle  Active,  and  Present  Participle 
Passive. 

176.  The  Passive  Voice  is  formed  by  means  of  the  helping 
verb  Be  and  the  Present  Participle  Passive  (see  Conjugation 
of  a  Passive  Verb,  page  59). 

(a)  No  Complete  verb  can  be  thrown  into  the  Passive  Voice  for  the  rea- 
son that  such  a  verb  can  have  no  object,  and  only  the  object  of  an  incom- 
plete verb  can  become  the  subject  of  the  Passive  Voice. 
The  sun  shines — 
— is  shone  by  the  sun. 

What  '  is  shone  ?'  You  see  there  is  nothing  to  become  the  subject.  Com- 
pare this  with  '  Watt  invented  the  steam-engine, '  '  The  steam-engine  was 
invented  by  Watt,'  and  you  will  see  that,  shines  being  a  Complete  verb,  there 
is  nothing  to  become  its  subject  in  the  Passive. 

(6)  With  the  exception  of  a  small  class,  all  verbs  in  the  Passive  Voice 
are  Complete  verbs.  Thus,  Howard  was  loved;  Nero  was  hated.  The 
small  exceptional  class  embraces  such  verbs  as  call,  think,  choose,  elect, 
name,  consider,  and  the  like.  Thus,  Newton  was  called  \  a  philosopher 
[complement]  ;  Columbus  was  thought  \  a  madman  [complement]. 

V.  CONJUGATION. 

177.  Conjugating  a  Verb  is  bringing  together  all  its  forms, 
so  as  to  show  its  tenses,  persons,  numbers,  moods,  and  voice. 

The  Conjugation  of  English  Verbs  is  exceedingly  simple  as  compared 
with  the  conjugation  of  the  verbs  in  many  other  languages. 


52 


ETYMOLOGY. 


178.  The  Principal  Parts  of  a  Verb  Active  are, 

I.  Present  Indicative ;  II.  Past  Indicative ;  III.  Past  Par- 
ticiple. 

MODEL  OP  CONJUGATION  OF  ALL  REGULAR  VERBS  IN  THE 
ACTIVE  VOICE. 

To  Love. 

PRINCIPAL   PARTS. 

Love;  Loved;  Loved. 


>  love. 


Present  Tense. 

You  ( 
We  ( 
They] 

He loves. 

Present  Perfect. 


INDICATIVE   MOOD. 

Past  Tense. 
I         ^ 
You 


Future  Tense. 


You 


You 


i         i       i 
have  loved. 


He      >  loved. 

He      >  shall  [or  will]  love. 

We 

We 

They) 

They  J 

Past  Perfect. 

Future  Perfect. 

You    ( 
He      >  had  loved. 
We 

i     ) 

TT°U    (  shall  [or  will] 
,y       [       have  loved. 

They) 

They  J 

They  j 

He has  loved. 

CONDITIONAL  FORM. — The  Conjugation  of  this  Mood  in  the 
conditional  form  is  made  by  preceding  the  above  by  a  Con- 
ditional Conjunction,  such  as  if  or  though  :  thus,  'If  I  love,' 
4  If  I  loved,'  <If  I  shall  love,'  etc. 


Present  Tense. 

You 

He      >  may  love. 

We 

They  J 


POTENTIAL   MOOD. 

Past  Tense.  Pres.  Perf.  Tense. 

I         j  I 

You   /  You 

He      >  might  love.  He 

We  We 

They  J  They 


may  have 
loved. 


Past  Perf.  Tense. 

I        } 

You    I  might 
He      >  have 
We     I  loved. 
They  j 


SUBJUNCTIVE   MOOD. 


The  Subjunctive  Mood  is  usually  conjugated  in  four  tenses 
—  the  Present,  the  Past,  the  Present  Perfect,  and  the  Past 
Perfect.  In  these  tenses  the  Subjunctive  has  the  same  forms 
as  the  Indicative  Mood,  except  in  the  third  person  singular 
of  the  Present  and  of  the  Past  Perfect  Tense. 

Present — (If)  he  love. 

Present  Perfect — (If)  he  have  loved. 


INFLECTION. 


53 


IMPERATIVE   MOOD. 

Second  Person,  Singular  and  Plural — Love. 

•NOTE. — Love  thou  and  love  ye  are  the  ancient  forms  of  the  second  per- 
son, sing,  and  plural.  Let  him  love,  let  us  love,  etc.,  are  sometimes  used 
to  mark  the  Imperative  Mood  in  the  third  and  in  the  first  person  respect- 
ively. 

INFINITIVES. 

.    Present:  To  love.  Perfect:  To  have  loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present:  loving.        Past:  loved.        Perfect:  having  loved. 

MODEL  OF  A  GENERAL  SYNOPSIS  OF  ALL  REGULAR  VERBS 
IN  THE  ACTIVE  VOICE, 

SHOWING   INFLECTIONS  AND   FORMATION   OF   TENSES. 

Indicative  Mood. 
Present  Tense  :    love,  or  loves. 
Past  Tense:         loved. 
Future  Tense :     shall  love,  or  will  love. 
Present  Perfect :  have  loved,  or  has  loved. 
Past  Perfect :       had  loved. 
Future  Perfect :  shall  have  loved,  or  will  have  loved. 

Potential  Mood. 

Present  Tense:    may,  can,  or  must  love. 
Past  Tense:         might,  could,  would,  or  should  love. 
Present  Perfect :  may  have,  can  have,  or  must  have  loved. 
Past  Perfect :      might  have,  could  have,  would  have,  or 

should  have  loved. 

Subjunctive  Mood. 
•  Present  Tense :    love. 
Present  Perfect :  have  loved. 


Present  Tense: 
Infinitives : 
Participles : 


Imperative  Mood. 
love. 

to  love,  to  have  loved, 
loving,  loved,  having  loved. 


NOTES  ON  THE  TENSES. 

I.  PRESENT  INDICATIVE. 

(I.)  The  present  tense  has  sometimes  a  future  meaning;  as, 
Duncan  comes  here  to-night. — Shakspeare. 
I  go  to  my  Father. — Bible. 


54  ETYMOLOGY. 

(2.)  The  present  tense  must  always  be  used  when  expressing  a  fact  univer- 
sally true  ;  as,  the  Greeks  did  not  know  that  the  earth  is  round. 

(3.)  The  historic  present  is  used  when  we  wish  to  describe  vividly  a  past 
event  as  taking  place  in  present  time. 

(4.)  The  progressive  present  is  formed  by  joining  the  present  tense  of  the 
verb  be  with  the  present  participle  of  any  verb ;  as,  /  am  writing ; 
he  is  talking.  This  means  that  the  person  is  fully  occupied,  and 
is  not  available  for  any  other  purpose. 

(5.)  The  emphatic  present  is  formed  by  joining  the  verb  do,  as  an  auxiliary, 
to  the  stem ;  as,  I  do  write ;  he  does  sing.  Do  is  employed  to 
remove  any  possibility  of  doubt. 

II.  PAST  INDICATIVE. 
(1.)  The  past  tense  states  something  which  stands  as  an  isolated  fact  in 

the  past.     At  Athens,  the  poets  sang  and  the  sages  talked. 
(2.)  The  past  progressive  states  a  continuous  past  active;  as,  I  was  musing; 

he  was  speaking. 
(3.)  The  emphatic  past  is  formed  by  joining  the  auxiliary  did  with  the 

stem  of  any  verb  ;  as,  I  did  say  that  Ca3sar  crossed  the  Kubicon. 

III.  FUTURE  INDICATIVE. 

(1.)  Shall  is  used  in  the  first  person  to  express  intention ;  thus,  I  shall 
write  a  letter,  means  I  intend  to  write  a  letter.  To  express  in- 
tention in  the  second  and  third  persons,  will  is  used ;  as,  you  or 
he  will  write  a  letter,  i.  e.,  intend  to  write  a  letter.  Will,  in  the 
first  person,  denotes  determination  ;  as,  I  will  go  to  New  York, 
means  I  am  determined  to  go  to  New  York.  Determination,  in 
the  second  and  third  persons,  is  expressed  by  shall ;  as,  you  shall 
go  home. 

[For  a  fuller  explanation  of  '  shall'  and  c  will,'  see  Syntax.] 

IV.  PRESENT  PERFECT  INDICATIVE. 

(1.)  The  present  perfect  tense  represents  a  past  action  with  reference  *o 
present  time.  I  have  eaten  my  dinner  means  that  I,  at  the 
present  moment,  am  in  the  condition  of  having  eaten  my  dinner. 
Hence,  when  there  is  any  reference  of  a  past  action  to  past  time, 
the  past  tense,  and  not  the  present  perfect,  should  be  used.  This 
tense  implies  double  time,  that  is,  the  auxiliary  expresses  present 
time,  and  the  participle  perfect  or  past  time. 

V.  PAST  PERFECT  INDICATIVE. 

The  past  perfect  tense  represents  a  past  event  with  reference  to  past  time ; 
as,  I  had  eaten  my  dinner  before  he  arrived.  This  tense  may  be 
called  a  correlative,  because  it  is  used  only  in  connection  with  a 
modifying  statement. 


INFLECTION.  55 

VI.  FUTURE  PERFECT  INDICATIVE. 

The  future  perfect  tense  denotes  an  action  that  will  happen  before  some 
other  future  action ;  as,  Dear  brother,  I  shall  have  gone  to  Eu- 
rope before  you  reach  home.     This  tense,  also,  is  correlative. 
Of  these  six  Tenses  of  the  Indicative,  three  express  simple  time,  and 
three  denote  two  kinds  or  points  of  time. 

SIMPLE    TIME. 

Names.  Forms. 

Present;  as I  write. 

Past;  " I  wrote. 

Future;  " I  shall  write. 

TWO   KINDS    OR    POINTS    OF   TIME. 

Names.  Forms. 

Present  Perfect I  have  written. 

Past  Perfect I  had  written. 

Future  Perfect I  shall  have  written. 

The  three  Compound  Tenses  all  involve  a  double  notion  of  time,  and 
re  therefore  correlative  tenses.     The  Present  Perfect  means  than  an  ac- 
tion begun  in  Past  time  is  finished  at  the  Present  time.     The  Past  Per- 
fect is  used  when  we  are  thinking  of  two  points  of  Past  time.     The  Future 
Perfect  is  used  when  we  are  thinking  of  two  points  of  Future  time. 

VII.  POTENTIAL  PRESENT 

(1.)  The  present  potential  asserts  chiefly  power  or  leave  to  do  something. 
It  also  implies  a  notion  of  futurity;  as,  I  may  go  to  town.  This 
comes  from  the  literal  meaning  of  the  old  verb  from  which  may 
is  derived,  and  which  means  to  have  the  power.  I  may  go  to 
town  literally  signifies  that  I  have  the  power  of  going  to  town 
(and,  impliedly,  the  inference  is  that  I  shall  go). 

(2.)  The  auxiliary  must  (from  the  same  root  as  may')  also  conveys  the  no- 
tion of  force  or  power,  but  it  is  force  outside  of  me.  I  must  go 
to  town=  here  is  force  that  compels  me  to  go ;  hence  the  idea  of 
duty. 

VIII.  POTENTIAL  PAST. 

Might  is  originally  the  past  tense  of  may ;  could  of  can;  would  of  will; 

and  should  of  shall. 
(1.)  Observe  that  when  a  sentence  contains  a  verb  in  the  past  potential,  it 

will  always  have  a  conditional  clause  introduced  by  a  conditional 

conjunction,  and  the  conditional  clause  will  always  be  in  the  past 

tense. 
(2.)  In  the  conditional  form  of  the  past  potential,  it  often  happens  that  the 

conjunction  (/*,  etc.,  is  omitted ;  thus,  Should  I  go  to  town— if  I 

should  go  to  town.     Note  that  in  this  construction  the  subject 

(pronoun  or  noun)  comes  after  the  verb. 


56  ETYMOLOGY. 

(3.)  The  past  potential  sometimes  implies  futurity ;  thus,  I  should  return 
next  week  if  I  were  to  leave  to-day. 

IX.  POTENTIAL  PAST  PERFECT. 

There  is  a  peculiar  construction  by  which  the  past  perfect  of  the  indica- 
tive serves  to  convey  the  sense  of  the  past  perfect  potential;  thus,  If  thou 
hadst  been  here  my  brother  had  not  died  (that  is,  should  not  have  died). 

VI.  VARIOUS  FOEMS  OF  A  TENSE. 

Besides  the  simple  forms  just  given,  many  of  the  Tenses 
assume  other  forms — Progressive,  Emphatic  or  Expletive,  In- 
terrogative,  Negative. 

1.  The  Progressive  Forms,  which  express  the  action  as  go- 
ing on,  are  made  by  putting  the  Present  Participle  Active 
after  the  parts  of  the  Yerb  Be ;  as,  I  am  striking  ;  he  has 
been  striking,  etc. 

2.  The  Emphatic  Form,  which  is  confined  to  the  Tenses 
without  auxiliaries,  is  made  by  putting  do  or  did  before  the 
Infinitive;  as,  I  do  strike ;  He  did  go. 

We  make  the  other  Tenses  emphatic  by  laying  stress  on 
the  auxiliary ;  as,  We  may  see  him ;  He  might  have  come. 

3.  The  Interrogative  Form  is  twofold : 

(a)  The  older  and  more  formal  question  in  the  Present 

and  Past  Indicative  simply  places  the  Verb  before 
the  Nominative;  &$,Lovest  thou  me?  Ask  we  for 
flocks  these  shingles  dry  ? 

(b)  The  common  way  of  asking  a  question,  if  there  be  no 

auxiliary,  places  do  or  did  before  the  Nominative; 
as,  Do  Hook  pale  ?     Did  you  see  him  ? 
If  there  be  an  auxiliary,  it  is  simply  placed  first ;  as, 
Am  I  looking  pale  ?     Will  you  take,  this  ? 

4.  The  Negative  Form,  is  also  twofold  : 

(a)  The  older  and  more  formal  way,  when  there  is  no 

auxiliary,  places  not  after  the  Verb ;  as,  I  saw  not; 
He  opened  not  his  eyes. 

(b)  The  common  way  of  denying,  if  there  be  no  auxiliary, 

uses  do  or  did,  with  not  after  it,  between  the  Nomi- 
native and  the  Verb ;  as,  I  do  not  know  him. 
If  there  be  an  auxiliary  already  in  the  Tense,  not  is  in- 
serted-after  it ;  as,  I  shall  not  see  him. 
&T  For  the  conjugation  in  all  these  forms,  see  Appendix. 


INFLECTION.  5  7 


VII.  NEW  AND  SIMPLE  WAY  OF  CONJUGATING. 

NOTE  FOR  THE  TEACHER. — The  author  has  preferred  not  to  depart  from 
what  is  in  the  United  States  the  most  commonly  received  mode  of  conjugating 
the  English  verb  ;  however,  for  the  sake  of  young  and  progressive  teachers, 
he  here  adds  a  very  simple  mode  of  treating  the  verb.  This  method  of  con- 
jugation rests  on  the  principle  that 

The  real  moods  and  tenses  are  such  only  as  are  formed  by  inflection ; 
and,  consequently,  that  compound  forms  made  up  of  a  verb  (so-called  aux- 
iliary) and  an  infinitive,  or  of  a  verb  (so-called  auxiliary)  and  a  participle, 
are  better  treated  as  separate  verbs. 

Now  it  is  well  known  that,  for  example,  in  our  so-called  future  tense,  as, 
I  shall  love,  he  will  love,  ll  shall'  is  by  itself  a  verb,  equivalent  to  I  owe;  that 
4  love'  is  a  real  infinitive,  and  that  the  compound  form  is  neither  more  nor  less 
than  I  owe  to  love;  so  he  will  love  is  he  wills  to  love.  In  like  manner,  the 
so-called  subjunctive,  as,  If  he  slay,  is  really  If  he  shall  slay.  And,  finally, 
tenses  compounded  of  the  auxiliary  and  the  participle  may  readily  be  resolved 
into  their  component  parts.  Thus  /  have  written  a  letter  is  just  I  have  or 
possess  a  letter  written. 

By  this  method  all  the  verbs  in  the  English  language  can  be  parsed  by  the 
aid  of  Two  TENSES  and  THREE  MOODS,  with  the  exception  of  the  verb  To 
Be,  which  has  a  real  subjunctive  mood.  Now  for  the  paradigm 

To  Learn. 

Learn;  Learned;  Learned. 

INDICATIVE   MOOD. 

Present  Tense.  Past  Tense. 

I      -)•  I 

You   (  ,  You 

We    flearn'  He     >  learned. 

They  I  We 

He... '.learns.  TheyJ 

IMPERATIVE  MOOD  :  Learn.        INFINITIVE  MOOD  :  To  learn. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present:  learning.  Past:  learned. 

MODEL  OF  PARSING  ON  THE  ABRIDGED  PLAN. 

They  may  have  been  there. 

May Auxiliary  verb,  third  plural,  present  indicative. 

Have A  verb  in  the  infinitive,  the  sign  to  being  understood  after  may. 

Been The  past  participle  of  the  verb  to  be. 

He  shall  be  called  John. 

Shall Auxiliary  verb,  third  singular,  present  tense. 

Be A  v«rb  in  the  infinitive,  the  sign  to  being  omitted. 

Called The  past  participle  of  the  verb  to  call. 

C  2 


58 


ETYMOLOGY. 


CONJUGATION  OF  THE  VERB  To  BE. 

NOTE. — The  conjugation  of  the  verb  '  To  Be'  is  given  at  this  point,  because 
Be  is  the  auxiliary  by  means  of  which  the  passive  voice  of  all  transitive  verbs 
is  formed. 

PRINCIPAL    PARTS. 

Pres.  2nd. :  Am.         Past  Ind. :  Was.         Past  Part. :  Been. 


INDICATIVE   MOOD. 


Present  Tense. 

Past  Tense. 

Fu 

I  am. 
He  is. 

He     }was' 

You 

We    ) 

We    ) 

He     y 

You    >  are. 

You   >  were. 

We 

They) 

They) 

They] 

Present  Perfect. 

Past  Perfect. 

i     | 

vy*11    >  have  been. 

You 
He     >  had  been. 

You 
He     y 

They  ) 

We 

We 

He  has  been. 

They] 

They] 

Future  Tense. 
shall  or  will  be. 
Future  Perfect. 
shall  or  will  have  been. 


Present  Tense. 
I 

You 
He 
We 
They; 


can  be. 


POTENTIAL   MOOD. 

Past  Tense.         Present  Perfect. 
I 

You 
He 
We 


Past  Perfect. 


They 


might, 

>  could, 

>  would,  or 
should  be. 


You    /  may  or 
He     >  can  have 
We    1  been. 
They  J 


I 

You 

He 

We 

They 


might, 
could, 
would,  or 
should 
have  been. 


Present  Tense. 
>be. 


resent 
Ifl       ) 
If  you 
If  he     > 
If  we 
If  they] 


SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 

Past  Tense. 
Ifl       ) 
Tfyou  ( 
If  he     >  were. 
If  we 
If  they  J 

IMPERATIVE   MOOD. 

Be. 


Present  Perfect. 
Ifl       j 
If  you 

If  he     >  have  been. 
If  we 
If  they) 


Presmt :  To  be. 


Present:  being. 


INFINITIVES. 

Past :  To  have  been. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Past :  been.        Perfect :  having  been. 


NOTES   ON   THE   VERB   TO   BE. 

1.  In  the  solemn  style,  Thou  art  is  used  in  the  second  person  ;  and  in  the 
past  tense,  Thou  wast. 

2.  The  Old  English  conjugation  of  the  Present  Tense  was  as  follows :  I, 
he,  we,  you,  they — be ;  Thou  beest;  and  in  the  Past  Tenses,  Thou  wert. 

There  be  many  wide  counties  in  Ireland. — Spenser. 
If  thou  beest  he. — Milton. 
Thou,  Stella,  wert  no  longer  young. — Swift. 
Before  the  heavens  Thou  wert. — Milton. 


INFLECTION.  59 

3.  The  forms  of  the  Verb  to  be  are  derived  from  at  least  two  sources  :  am, 
was,  were,  etc.,  are  from  Anglo-Saxon  wesan,  to  be.     Be,  been,  etc.,  are  from 
Anglo-Saxon  beon,  to  be.     The  Plural  are  is  of  Danish  origin,  replacing  the 
Saxon  Plural  form  in  synd. 

4.  The  conjugation  of  the  Verb  to  be,  in  the  solemn  style,  differs  from  the 
common  only  in  the  second  person  singular,  as  follows  :  Ind.  Mood  :  Thou 
art,  wast,  hast  been,  hadst  been,  shalt  or  wilt  be,  shalt  or  wilt  have  been. 
Potential  :  Thou  mayest  be,  mightst  be,  mayst  have  been,  mightst  have  been. 
Subjunctive  :  If  thou  be. 

MODEL  FOR  THE  CONJUGATION  OF  ALL  VEKBS  IN  THE  PAS- 
SIVE VOICE. 

179.  The  Passive  Voice  is  that  form  of  the  Verb  which  ex- 
presses something  done-to  the  subject. 

180.  The  Passive  Voice  of  a  Transitive  Verb  is  formed  by 
joining  its  Present  Participle  Passive  with  the  verb  to  be, 
fully  conjugated. 

NOTE.  —  As  the  subject  of  a  Passive  was  once  the  object  of  an  Active  Verb, 
Passives  can  be  formed  only  from  Transitive  Verbs. 

To  be  Loved. 

INDICATIVE   MOOD. 

Present  Tense.  Past  Tense.  Future  Tense. 

I  am  )  I  was  }  I 

He  is  /  He  was       /  You 

We  are  >  loved.  We  were     >  loved.  He      >  shall  be  loved. 

You  are  f  You  were    (  We 

They  are  )  They  were  J  They  J 

Present  Perfect.  Past  Perfect.  Future  Perfect. 

i    )  i     }  i     ) 

You   I  have  been  You    /  had  You    /        ,,,         ... 

We  loved.  He     V  been  He  '™ 


. 

They)  We     I  loved.  We     I 

He  ....  has  been  loved.        They  J  They  j 

NOTE.  —  The  conditional  form  of  the  Indicative  is  conjugated  by  putting 
one  of  the  conditional  conjunctions,  such  as  if,  though,  unless,  before  the  sev- 
eral parts  given  above  ;  as,  If  I  am  loved  ;  unless  he  had  been  loved,  etc. 

POTENTIAL    MOOD. 


Present  Tense. 

I        ) 
You   I  may  or 
He     >  can  be 
We    1  loved. 
They] 

Ifl      •) 
If  you  / 
If  he     >  be  loved 
If  we    ( 
If  they; 

Past  Tense.           Present  Perfect.           Past  Perfect. 

1        )  mi  ht           I        }                         I        ]  miSnt> 
You   I  m1^,  ,  '         You   f  mav  or           You    1  could, 

He     >{*}{*     He     V  can  have         He      >  would,  or 
We       f                 We.      been  loved.     We     I  should  have 
They  j  Io                 They  j                         They  J  been  loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE   MOOD. 
Ifl-      \                                        Ifl        -) 

If  you  /                              If  you  / 
If  he    V  were  loved.          If  he     >  have  been  loved. 
If  we   t                             If  we    C 
If  they;                             If  they; 

60  ETYMOLOGY. 

IMPERATIVE   MOOD. 

Be  loved. 

INFINITIVES. 

Present :  To  be  loved.  Perfect :  To  have  been  loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present :  being  loved.  Perfect :  having  been  loved. 

VII.  IRREGULAR,  or  Strong  Verbs. 

181.  All  Verbs  that  do  not  form  their  principal  parts  ac- 
cording to  the  Regular  Model  (see  *([  178)  are  called  Irregu- 
lar Verbs. 

Modern  grammarians  style  this  class  of  Verbs  Strong  Verbs,  as  they 
make  their  parts  by  a  powerful  internal  change,  and  thus  stand  contrasted 
with  the  verbs  in  the  -e d  inflection,  which  are  styled  Weak  Verbs.  Strong 
verbs  are  all  a  heritage  from  the  early  Saxon. 

182.  Irregular  Verbs  number  less  than  200,  but  they  belong 
to  the  very  groundwork  of  our  modern  tongue. 

MODEL  FOR  THE  CONJUGATION  OF  IRREGULAR  OR  STRONG 
VERBS. 

To  Write. 

PRINCIPAL   PARTS. 

Write;  Wrote;   Written. 


INDICATIVE   MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

Past 

Tense. 

Future 

Tense. 

I        1 

i 

I         > 

| 

I 

} 

You   ( 

You   1 

! 

You 

We    | 

>  write. 

He 

>  wrote. 

He 

>  shall 

(will)  write. 

They] 

1 

We 

We 

He... 

.  writes. 

TheyJ 

1 

They 

) 

Present  Perfect. 

Past  Perfect. 

Future  Perfect. 

I        I 

| 

I        ^ 

I 

) 

You   I 
We    1 

>•  have  written 

You    | 
•He 

had  written. 

You 
He 

>  shall 

(will)  have 

written. 

They! 

1      . 

We    | 

We 

He... 

.  has  written. 

They  \ 

They 

)     • 

POTENTIAL  MOOD. 

Present  Perfect 

Past 

Perfect 

Present  Tense. 

Past 

Tense. 

Tense. 

Tense. 

I 

1 

I 

) 

I 

j 

You 
He 
We 

>  may  write. 

might 
write. 

You 
He 
We 

I  may  have 
1      written. 

You 
He 
We 

(  might  have 
(      written. 

They 

I 

They 

) 

They 

) 

INFLECTION.  61 

SUBJUNCTIVE   MOOD. 

The  subjunctive  mood  has  the  same  form  as  the  indicative,  except  ill 
the  third  person  singular  of  the  present,  and  of  the  present  perfect  tense. 

Present:  (If)  he  write.         Present  Perfect:  (If)  he  have  written. 

IMPERATIVE   MOOD. 

Write. 

INFINITIVES. 

Present :  To  write.  Perfect :  To  have  written. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present :  writing.         Past :  written.         Perfect :  having  written. 

LIST  OF  IRREGULAR,  OR  STRONG  VERBS. 
183.  The  following  list  contains  most  of  the  Strong  Verbs 
in  English,  grouped  according  to  the  nature  of  their  internal 
changes : 

Root-vowel  modified  for  Past,  and  -en  or  -n  added  for  PARTI- 
CIPLE. 


Present  Tense. 

Past  Tense. 

Past  Part. 

Bid 

bade  (bad) 

bidden  (bid) 

Forbid* 

Bite 

bit 

bitten  (bit) 

Break 

broke 

broken  (broke) 

Speak 

Bear  (cany) 

bore 

borne 

Forbear 

Bear  (give  birth) 

—    bore  (bare) 

born 

Wear,  swear,  tear 

Blow 

blew 

blown 

Fly,  grow,  throw, 

know 

Chide 

chid 

chidden  (chid) 

Hide 

Choose 

chose 

chosen 

Drive 

drove 

driven 

Strive,  thrive 

Draw 

drew 

drawn 

Eat 

ate 

eaten 

Fall 

fell 

fallen 

Freeze 

froze 

frozen 

Get 

got 

gotten  (got) 

Forget,  beget 

Give 

gave 

given 

Forgive 

• 

Hold 

held 

holden  (held) 

Lie 

lay 

lain 

*  The  Verbs  indented  are  conjugated  like  those  which  they  immediately  follow. 


62 


ETYMOLOGY. 


Present  Tense. 
Ride 

Stride 
Rise 

Arise 
Shake 

Take,  forsake 
Shrink 
Smite 

Write 
Steal 
Strike 
Slay 
Tread 
Weave 


Past  Tense. 
rode 


shook 

shrank  (shrunk) 
smote 

stole 

struck 

slew- 

trod 

wove 

II. 


Pas*  Part. 
ridden 

risen 
shaken 

shrunken  (shrunk) 
smitten  (smit) 

stolen 

stricken  (struck) 

slain 

trodden 

woven  (wove) 


Hoot-vowel  modified  for  Past  Tense,  and  no  suffix  in  Participle. 

Present  Tense.  Past  Tense.  Past  Part. 

Abide  abode  abode 

Awake  awoke  awoke 

Wake 

Begin  began  (begun)  begun 

Spin  (no  a) 

Behold  beheld  beheld 

Bind  bound  bound 

Wind,  grind,  find 

Bleed  bled  bled 

Lead,  feed,  breed 

Cling  clung  clung 

Wring,  swing,  string,  sting,  sling,  fling 

Come  came  come 

Dig  dug  dug 

Drink  drank  (drunk)  drunk 

Slink  (no  a),  stink,  sink 


Fight 

fought 

fought 

Meet 

met 

met 

Read 

r6ad 

read 

Ring 

rang  (rung) 

rung 

Spring,  sing 

Shine 

shone 

shone 

Shoot 

shot 

shot 

Sit 

sat 

sat 

Spit 

Slide 

slid 

slid 

Stand 

stood 

stood 

Stick 

stuck 

stuck 

Win 

won 

won 

Hang* 

hung 

hung 

Light* 

lit 

lit 

*  Those  marked  with  au  asterisk  are  also  weak. 


INFLECTION.  63 

III. 

Root-vowel  modified,  and  -t  or  -d  added  for  Fast  Tense  and 
Past  Participle. 

Present  Tense.          Past  Tense.  Past  Part. 

Bereave*  bereft  bereft 

Reave,  leave,  cleave  (split) 
Beseech  besought  besought 

Work,*  think,  seek,  buy,  bring 
Catch  caught  caught 

Teach 
Creep  crept  crept 

Weep,  sweep,  sleep,  keep 
Deal  dealt  dealt 

Mean,  leap,*  dream* 
Feel  felt  felt 

Kneel* 

Flee  fled  fled 

Hear  heard  h&ird 

Lose  lost  lost  0 

Say  said  said 

Sell  sold  sold 

Tell 
Shoe  shod  shod 

IV. 

Weak  in  Past  Tense;  strong  in  Past  Participle. 

Present  Tense.  Past  Tense.                              Past  Part. 

Heave  (to  throw)  heaved  hoven  (heaved) 

Lade  laded  laden 

Mow  mowed  mown 

Sew,  show,  sow,  strew,  strow 

Saw  sawed  sawn 

Straw 

Rive  rived  riven 

Wax  waxed  waxen  (waxed) 

Grave  *        graved  graven  (graved) 

Swell  swelled  swollen  (swelled) 

Seethe  seethed  sodden  (seethed) 

V. 

No  Inflections.  • 

Present  Tense.  Past  Tense.  Past  Part. 

Bid  (offer  to  buy).  bid.  bid. 

Bet,*  burst,  cast,  cut,  durst,  hit,  hurt,  knit,*  let,  put,  rid,  set,  shed,  shred, 
shut,  slit,  spread,  thrust,  wed,*  beat  (past  part,  also  beaten). 

*  Those  marked  with  an  asterisk  are  also  weak. 


64  ETYMOLOGY. 

• 

VI. 

.  SOME  PECULIAR  IRREGULAR  VERBS. 

Present  Indicative.  Past.  Past.  Part. 

1.  Go,  went,  gone. 

The  past  indicative  went  is  not  formed  from  the  root  go :  it  is  really  a 
contraction  of  wended,  the  past  tense  of  the  Saxon  verb  wendan,  to  wend 
or  go ;  thus,  he  went  his  way— he  wended  his  way. 

2.  Have,  had,  had. 
The  past  tense  had  is  a  contraction  of  haved  (Anglo-Saxon  haefde). 

3.  Do,  did,  done. 
With  other  verbs,  do  is  used  (1)  to  express  emphasis «•  as,  I  do  believe. 

(2)  In  negation ;  as,  I  do  not  think  so.     (3)  In  interrogation ;  as,  Do  you 
travel  by  rail  ? 

Do,  as  used  in  the  expression,  How  do  you  do  ?  is  a  totally  different 
verb :  this  'do'  comes  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  verb  dugan,to  profit  or  pros- 
per. HenSe,  How  do  you  do  ?  means  How  do  you  prosper  f 

4.  Make,  made,  made. 

The  past  tense  '  made'  is  a  contraction  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  macode,  that 
is,  maked.  In  other  respects,  the  verb  l  make'  is  regularly  inflected. 

184.  All  Verbs  of  recent  introduction  into  the  language  are 
of  the  weak  Conjugation ;  indeed,  the  present  tendency  of 
the  language  is  to  convert  strong  verbs  into  weak. 

VII. 

Defective  Verbs. 

185.  Verbs  that  are  deficient  in  any  of  their  simple  forms 
are  called  Defective  Verbs;  as, 

Infinitive.  Present  Tense.  Past  Tense.              Past  Part. 

1. shall  should 

2. will  would 

3. may  might 

4. must 

5. can  could 

6.  Wit  wot  wist 

7.  Owe  owe  *  ought 

8. (me)-thinks  (me)-thought 

9.  List  list 

10.  Weather-verbs,  such  as  it  freezes,  snows,  hails,  rains,  thunders,  etc. , 
may  be  called  'unipersonal  verbs,'  because  they  are  used  in  only  the  third 
person  singular.     The  subject,  it,  is  very  indefinite^  being  merely  a  mode  of 
making  the  statement. 


INFLECTION.  65 


NOTES    ON   THE    DEFECTIVE    VERBS. 

1.  Shall:  This  verb  is  found  only  in  the  present  and  in  the  past  tense.    Its 
original  meaning  was  to  owe ;  thus  we  use  should  in  the  sense  of  ought :  he 
should  do  so=he  ought  to  do  so.     Hence  shall,  as  an  auxiliary,  implies  obliga- 
tion or  necessity,  as  opposed  to  free-will  or  determination  expressed  by  will. 
Should,  in  the  conditional,  expresses  contingent  futurity;  in  the  Subjunctive, 
a  future  condition. 

2.  Will:  This  verb  has  two  separate  meanings  and  uses :  (1)  As  an  auxili- 
ary, it  expresses  future  determination  ;  (2)  As  a  principal  verb,  it  denotes  the 
exercise  of  will;  as,  I  will,  be  thou  clean. 

(1)  As  an  auxiliary,  it  is  found  only  in  the  present  and  past;  as,  will, 
ivould. 

(2)  As  a  principal  verb,  it  is  regular  and  weak :  I  will,  I  willed,  willed^ 
to  will,  willing. 

Would,  in  the  conditional,  expresses  contingent  determination. 

3.  May :  This  verb  is  found  only  in  the  present  and  past ;  2d  pers. ,  mayst, 
and  mightest  or  mightst ;  3d  pers.,  sing.,  present,  may.     In  conjunction  with 
another  verb,  may  expresses  (1)  permission;  as,  'you  may  go ;'  (2)  concession; 
as,  he  may  slay  me,  but  I  will  trust  in  him ;  (3)  with  the  subject  transposed, 
desire ;  as,  may  they  be  happy. 

4.  Must :  Only  one  form  of  this  verb  is  used  ;  it  is  the  past  tense ;  but  it  is 
also  used  with  a  present  and  a  future  signification ;  as,  I  must  yield  now ;  I 
must  go  to-morrow.     Under  various  modifications,  must  expresses  the  general 
idea  of  necessity;  as,  he  must  go.    With  the  first  person  this  often  implies  de- 
termination ;  I  must  advance  (I  am  so  situated  that  I  am  determined  to  ad- 
vance).    When  it  relates  to  a  fact,  it  implies  certainty ;  as,  it  must  be  so : 
Plato,  thou  reasonest  well. — Addison. 

5.  Can :  Like  shall  and  may,  is  found  only  in  the  present  and  in  the  past 
tense.     The  I  is  inserted  in  could  in  imitation  of  would  and  should,  but  it  is 
a  false  analogy.     The  old  form  is  coude.     Can,  with  another  verb,  expresses 
ability ;  I  can  draw = I  am  able  to  draw. 

6.  Wit,  means  to  know  (A.S.  wit-ari).     It  is  used  in  the  infinitive,  to  wit  = 
namely.     The  present,  wot,  is  found  repeatedly  in  the  English  Bible,  in  both 
numbers  and  in  all  persons :  I  wot  that  he  whom  thou  blessest  is  bletsed. 
My  master  wotteth  not  what  is  with  me  in  the  house.     And  in  Shakspeare, 
More  water  glideth  by  the  mill  than  wots  the  miller  of.     The  past,  wist,  is 
also  found  in  the  English  Bible ;  as,  Moses  wist  not  that  his  face  shone.     And 
in  Shakspeare,  And  if  I  ivist,  he  did ;  but  let  it  rest. 

7.  Owe :  The  earlier  meaning  of  this  word  is  to  own,  to  have ;  as, 

To  throw  away  the  dearest  thing  he  owed. — Shakspeare. 
Like  have,  it  is  also  used  in  the  sense  of  get ;  as, 

Say  from  whence 
You  owe  this  strange  intelligence. — Shakspeare. 

But  what  we  have  got  from  another  we  are  indebted  for ;  hence  arises  the 
modern  sense  of  the  word  to  be  indebted;  as, 

What  we  shall  say  we  have,  and  what  we  owe. — Shakspeare. 
Ought  is  the  proper  past  tense  of  owe ;  but  'I  ought'  has  come  to  be  used 


66  ETYMOLOGY. 

as  an  independent  verb  (like  must,  without  distinctions  of  person,  number, 
or  tense)  with  the  meaning,  it  is  my  duty  (what  is  due  by  me).  The  ordi- 
nary past  of  owe  is  owed. 

8.  Methinks :  The  prefix  me  is  the  dative  of  the  pronoun.     The  subject  of 
thinks  is  the  clause  following  it.     This  word  thinks  means  seems  (A.  S.  thine- 
an,  to  seem). 

9.  List  means. to  please ;  The  wind  bloweth  where  it  listeth.     It  is  found 
only  in  the  present  tense. 

Exercise  25. 

A. 

Write  a  SYNOPSIS  of  the  following  Verbs  in  the  3d  Person, 
Singular  Number,  Active  Voice,  Indicative  Mood: 
Speak  ;  think ;  eat ;  laugh  ;  sit ;  sleep ;  cry. 
Dress  ;  rise ;  sit. 

B. 
Write  the  PRINCIPAL  PAKTS  of  the  following  Verbs : 

Fall;  loose;  sing;  work;  shine;  tell. 
Ride ;  put ;  steal ;  catch  ;  mean  ;  wear. 
Hurt ;  come  ;  go ;  play ;  tear ;  set ;  fly ;  hear. 

C. 

Put  the  following  Sentences  first  into  PAST,  and  secondly  into 
FUTURE  Tenses: 

1 .  The  sun  gradually  sinks  below  the  horizon. 

2.  The  grain  is  ready  to  be  harvested. 

3.  The  steam-ship  is  sailing  across  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

4.  I  have  come  to  say  good-by  to  my  friends. 

i>.  It  thunders  and  lightens  terribly  in  the  valley  of  the  Platte  River. 

D. 

Write  a  SYNOPSIS  of  the  following  Verbs  in  the  Indicative 

$food,  3d  Person,  Singular  Number,  Passive  Voice: 

Strike ;  eat ;  laugh  at ;  speak  to ;  stand  up. 

Laid  down ;  pet ;  let  off ;  get  up  ;  think  of. 

E. 

In  the  following  Sentences,  turn  all  the  INDICATIVE  Moods 
into  POTENTIAL  Moods : 

1.  No  one  becomes  a  scholar  without  hard  study. 

2.  Worth  makes  the  man,  and  want  of  it  the  fellow. 

3.  We  are  going  to  Yokohama  in  the  great  steam-ship  Colorado. 

4.  I  shall  go  to  school  to-morrow. 

5.  Right  whale  are  not  able  to  cross  the  line  of  the  equator. 

6.  It  was  impossible  for  me  to  go. 

7.  By  the  death  of  his  father,  it  was  made  impossible  for  him  to  remain 

at  school. 


INFLECTION".  67 

F. 

• 

Change  the  following  Verbs  from  the  ACTIVE  to  the  PASSIVE 
voice,  making  the  object  of  the  active  voice  the  subject  of  the 
passive,  and  preserving  the  full  sense: 

1 .  Dr.  Livingstone  has  explored  a  large  part  of  Africa. 

2.  Paul  Revere  carried  to  Lexington  the  news  of  the  intended  attack  by 

the  British. 

3.  The  first  fresh  dawn  awoke  us. 

4.  The  people  of  Lynn  manufacture  great  quantities  of  shoes. 

5.  No  one  has  yet  reached  the  North  Pole. 

G. 
Tell  the  MOOD  of  each  Verb* 

1.  I  hear  thee  speak  of  the  better  land. — Hemans. 

2.  I  hear  a  knocking  at  the  south  entry. — Shakspeare. 

3.  Get  on  your  nightgown,  lest  occasion  call  us 
And  show  us  to  be  watchers. — Shakspeare. 

4.  If  my  standard-bearer  fall  .... 

Press  where  ye  see  my  white  plume  shine. — Macaulay. 

5.  Where  shall  poverty  reside, 

To  'scape  the  pressure  of  contiguous  pride? — Goldsmith. 

6.  Thy  kingdom  come,  Thy  will  be  done. — English  Bible. 

7.  They  that  be  whole  need  not  a  physician,  but  they  that  are  sick. — En- 

glish Bible. 

8.  He  made  his  final  sally  forth  upon  the  world,  hoping  all  things,  believ- 

ing all  things,  little  anticipating  the  checkered  ills  in  store  for  him. 
— Irving. 

9.  Would  I  describe  a  preacher,  such  as  Paul — 
Were  he  on  earth — would  hear,  approve,  and  own, 
Paul  should  himself  direct  me. — Cowper. 

10.  Part  we  in  friendship  from  your  land, 
And,  noble  earl,  receive  my  hand. — Scott. 

H. 

Tell  the  MOODS  and  the  TENSES  in  the  following  /Sentences: 

1 .  The  general  had  taken  his  departure  before  the  mail  arrived. 

2.  If  nothing  unforeseen  occur,  I  shall  leave  home  to-morrow. 

3.  I  have  heard  you  say  that  we  shall  see  and  know  our  friends  in  heaven. 

4.  Had  any  thing  unforeseen  occurred,  he  would  have  written. 

5.  Let  all  the  ends  thoti  aimest  at  be  thy  God's,  thy  country's. 

6.  To  be  or  not  to  be,  that  is  the  question. 

VIII.  UNINFLECTED  PARTS  OF  SPEECH. 
186.  The  Preposition,  the  Conjunction,  and  the  Interjection 

have  no  inflections. 

• 

(a)  The  Preposition  and  the  Conjunction  themselves  express  relations 
which  do  not  admit  of  being  modified. 


68  ETYMOLOGY. 

(ft)  The  Interjection,  from  its  nature  as  a  mere  outcry,  is  free  from  all 
grammatical  restraints. 

REVIEW  OP  THE  INFLECTIONS. 

187.  The  review  of  this  part  of  the  subject  shows  that 
words  may  undergo  seven  kinds  of  inflection — the  inflection 
of  Gender,  Number,  Case,  Person,  Comparison,  Tense,  and 
Mood. 

(I.)  THE  NOUN  has  changes  to  express  Gender,  Number,  and  Case. 

THE  PRONOUN      "         "       "        Gender,  Number,  Case,  and  Person. 

THE  ADJECTIVE   "         "       "        Comparison. 

THE  ADVERB      •"         "       "        Comparison. 

THE  VERB  "         "      '"        Number,  Person,  Tense,  Mo<3d. 

(2.)  GENDER applies  to  the  Noun  and  Pronoun. 


NUMBER 

PERSON 

CASE 

COMPARISON 

TENSE 

MOOD 


Noun,  Pronoun,  and  Verb. 
Pronoun  and  Verb. 
Noun  and  Pronoun. 
Adjective  and  Adverb. 
Verb. 
Verb. 


Parsing.— Third  Model. 

NOTE. — In  the  Third  Model  of  Parsing  the  pupil  is  required  to  state 
the  full  etymology  of  each  part  of  speech ;  that  is,  to  name  the  part  of 
speech ;  to  give  its  subdivisions,  and  to  name  its  inflections  (if  any).  The 
following  table  will  guide  the  pupil  as  to  the  order  of  statement  in  each 
part  of  speech. 

1.  THE  NOUN. 

1.  KIND Common  or  Proper. 

2.  NUMBER.  .Singular  or  Plural. 

3.  OFFICE  . .  .Subject,  Possessive,  or  Object. 

(1)  If  subject,  say  to  what. 

(2)  If  possessive,  limiting  one. 

(3)  If  object,  complement  of  what,  or  linked  by  what 

preposition. 

2.  THE  PRONOUN. 

KIND.  . .  .Personal,  Relative,  or  Demonstrative. 
Then,  if  personal,  its 


Person  (1st,  2d,  or  3d). 

Case  (nominative,  possessive,  or  objective). 


Gender  (masculine,  feminine,  or  neuter,  if  a  3d  per- 
sonal pronoun). 
(4)  The  represented  noun. 


INFLECTION.  69 

If  relative,  its 

(1)  Number  (which  will  be  the  same  as  that  of  its  an- 

tecedent). 

(2)  Case  (nominative,  possessive,  or  objective,  accord- 

ing to  its  function  in  the  sentence). 

(3)  Antecedent. 

If  demonstrative,  tell  what  it  limits. 

3.  THE  ADJECTIVE. 

1.  KIND.  .  .  .  Common,  Demonstrative, or  an  Article. 

2.  DEGREE  .  .  (If  comparative  or  if  superlative,  say  so ;  no 

occasion  to  mention  degree  if  positive). 

3.  OFFICE.  .  .Describes  or  limits — what. 

4.  THE  ADVERB. 

1.  KIND Simple  or  Relative. 

2.  DEGREE.'.  . .  . (If  comparative  or  superlative). 

3.  OFFICE Describes — what. 

5.  THE  PREPOSITION. 

OFFICE  , . . .  Links  what  noun  or  pronoun  to  what  other 
word. . 

6.  THE  CONJUNCTION. 

KIND.  . .  .Co-ordinate,  subordinate,  or  correlative. 
OFFICE  .  .  Connects  what  statements. 

7.  THE  INTERJECTION. 
Simply  name  it  as  an  Interjection. 

8.  THE  VERB. 

1.  KIND Complete,  or  Incomplete. 

If  incomplete,  whether  Transitive  or  Neuter. 

2.  PERSON 1st,  2d,  or  3d. 

3.  NUMBER Singular  or  Plural. 

4.  TENSE Present,  Past,  Future ;  Present  Per- 

fect, Past  Perfect,  Future  Perfect. 

5.  MOOD Indicative,  Potential,  Subjunctive,  or 

Imperative. 

6.  VOICE If  Passive,  say  so. 

7.  PRINCIPAL  PARTS.. Present  Indicative,  Past  Indicative, 

Past  Participle. 


70  ETYMOLOGY. 

8.  CONJUGATION Regular  or  Irregular  (or  else  Weak 

or  Strong). 

9.  SUBJECT A  Noun  or  its  equivalent. 

If  an  Infinitive,  give 

Its  principal  parts. 
Its  conjugation. 
Its  tense — present,  past. 
If  a  Participle,  say  if 
Present,  past,  or  perfect. 

188.  Syntactical  parsing  takes  up  the  word  where  Etymo- 
logical parsing  leaves  it,  and  gives  the  function  of  the  word 
in  the  sentence. 

The  syntactical  parsing  of  each  part  of  speech,  in  all  its  relations,  will  be 
found  in  Part  II.,  SYNTAX. 

189.  The  pupil  has  already  been  told  that  the  icay  in  which 
a  word  is  used  fixes  the  class  to  which  it  ought  to  belong. 
As  the  same  word  may  be  used  in  different  ways,  it  must  get 
a  different  name  according  to  each  separate  use.     This  sub- 
ject is  so  important  in  parsing  that  a  few  additional  exam- 
ples are  here  added. 

190.  Take  the  word  calm.     It  may  be  used,  1.  As  a  Noun 
— a  great  calm  fell  on  the  sea.     2.  An  Adjective — it  was  a 
calm,  bright  day.     3.  As  a  Verb — I  did  it  to  calm  his  fears. 

191.  There  is  considerable  interchange  of  words  among  the 
three  kinds — Adverb,  Preposition,  and  Conjunction. 

But  is  originally  a  Preposition,  derived  from  the  Impera- 
tive phrase  be-out — that  is,  take  out,  or  except.  It  is  also  used 
as  an  Adverb  and  a  Conjunction ;  as, 

Prep.      All  but  him  had  fled= except. 

Adverb.  I  have  but  three  \Q^  —  only. 

Conj.      He  heard  it,  but  he  heeded  not. 

For  and  Since  are  also  Prepositions,  Conjunctions,  or  Ad- 
verbs, according  to  their  use. 

Adv.  I  was  called  for.  I  told  him  long  since. 

Prep.  Is  that/br  me?  Since  his  arrival. 

Conj.  He  went,  for  he  was  ready.   Since  you  are  here,  stay. 
Above.  Adverb.  He  lay  above. 

Prep.      He  was  ranked  above  me. 

NOTE. — A  vulgar  use  of  above  as  an  Adjective,  as  the  above  remarks,  is  to 
be  avoided. 


INFLECTION. 

UNIVERSITY 

In.      Prep.  I  shall  call  in  an  hour. 

Adv.  He  could  not  hold  in  his 
Off.     u4c7v.  or  P/-6p.  He  fell  off  (his  horse)> 

Adj.  The  ojf  leader  strained  his  leg. 

No.     Adj.  I  have  no  silver. 

Adv.  In  the  answer  no  —  not ;  He  is  no  better. 

As.     Conj.  You  may  stay,  as  it  is  raining. 

Adv.  My  book  is  as  clean  as  yours. 
Only.  Adj.  An  only  son. 

Adv.  I  have  ow£y  two. 
Very.  Adj.  The  very  thing. 

Adv.  You  are  very  late. 
Then.  Adv.  I  saw  him  then. 

Conj.  Am  I  £Ae?i  to  stay  ? 
Yet.     (7on/.  Though  he  slay  me,  yet  will  I  trust  him. 

Adv.  Are  you  sleeping  yet  ? 
With.  Prep.  Charles  came  with  John. 

Conj.  The  side  -4,  with  two  others,  make  a  triangle. 

N  th*"  V  Strictly  adjectives  of  dual  meaning,  these 
B^h  *  i  W01'ds  are  used  as  Assistant  Conjunctions. 

However.  }  These  Adverbs  are  frequently  used  as  Con- 
Meanwhile.  [•  junctions  to  introduce  a  new  sentence  or 
Moreover.  )  paragraph. 

EXAMPLE  OF  PAKSING  BY  MODEL  HI. 

I  chanced  to  rise  very  early  one  particular  morning  this  summer,  and  took  a 
walk  into  the  country  to  divert  myself  among  the  fields  and  meadows, 
while  the  green  was  new  and  the  flowers  in  their  bloom. 

I Personal  pronoun,  first  person  singular ;  nominative,  subject  to 

verb  chanced. 

chanced An  incomplete  verb,  first  person  singular,  past  indicative ;  prin- 
cipal parts  chance,  chanced,  chanced;  regular  conjugation ;  its 
subject  is  /. 

to  rise An  infinitive;  principal  parts  rise,  rose,  risen ;  irregular  conju- 
gation; present  tense;  complement  of  the  incomplete  verb 
chanced. 

very Adverb,  describing  early. 

early Adverb,  describing  rise. 

one Demonstrative  adjective,  limiting  morning. 

particular.  .Adjective,  describing  morning. 

morning.. .  .Common  noun,  singular  number,  linked  by  preposition  on  (under- 
stood) to  rise. 


72  ETYMOLOGY. 

this Demonstrative  adjective,  singular  number,  limits  summer. 

summer Common  noun,  singular  number,  linked  by  preposition  during  (un- 
derstood) to  morning. 

and Co-ordinate  conjunction ;  connects  the  statements  '  I  chanced  to 

rise  very  early,' (I)  'took  a  walk,' etc.,  by  joining  the  verbs 
chanced  and  took. 

took Incomplete  verb,  transitive  ;  first  person,  singular,  past  tense,  in- 
dicative; principal  parts  take,  took,  taken;  irregular  conjuga- 
tion ;  its  subject  is  /  (understood). 

a The  indefinite  article,  limiting  walk. 

walk Common  noun,  objective  case,  complement  of  took. 

into Preposition  ;  links  country  to  walk. 

the The  definite  article,  limiting  country. 

country Common  noun,  linked  by  into  to  walk. 

to  divert. .  .An  infinitive ;  principal  parts  divert,  diverted,  diverted;  irregular 
conjugation. 

myself Compound  personal  pronoun,  first  person  singular,  objective  case, 

complement  of  divert. 

among Preposition  ;  links  fields  to  divert. 

the The  definite  article,  limiting  fields. 

fields Common  noun,  plural  number,  linked  by  among  to  divert. 

and Co-ordinate  conjunction  ;  connects  the  statements  '  I  took  a  walk 

among  the  fields'  and  'I  took,  etc.,  among  the  meadows'  by 
joining  the  words  Jields  and  meadows. 

meadows ..  .Common  noun,  plural  number,  linked  by  among  (understood)  to 
divert. 

while Relative  adverb ;  joins  the  statements  *  the  green  was  new'  and  '  I 

took  a  walk  into  the  country,'  etc. 

the The  definite  article,  limiting  green. 

green Common  noun  (used  for  greenness),  singular  number,  subject  of 

was. 

was Incomplete  verb,  third  person  singular,  past  indicative ;  principal 

parts  am,  was,  been  ;  irregular ;  its  subject  is  green. 

new Common  adjective ;  complement  of  was ;  describes  green. 

and Co-ordinate  conjunction  ;  joins  statements  before  and  after. 

the Definite  article,  limiting  flowers. 

flowers Common  noun,  plural  number,  subject  of  were  (understood). 

in Preposition ;  links  bloom  to  were  (understood). 

their. Personal  pronoun,  third  person  plural;  neuter ;  possessive  case, 

describing  bloom  and  representing  flowers. 

bloom Common  noun,  singular ;  linked  by  in  to  were  (understood). 

Exercise  26. 

/Sentences  for  PARSING. 

A. 

1.  Holy  and  heavenly  thoughts  shall  counsel  her. — Shakspeare. 

2.  Then  rose  from  sea  to  sky  the  wild  farewell. — Byron. 

3.  The  better  part  of  valor  is  discretion. — Shakspeare. 

4.  The  boy  stood  on  the  burning  deck, 
Whence  all  but  him  had  fled. — Hemans. 


INFLECTION.  73 

5.  The  steed  along  the  drawbridge  flies. — Scott. 

C.  I  could  hear  my  friend  chide  him  for  not  finding  out  some  work,  but 

at  the  same  time  saw  him  put  his  hand  in  his  pocket  and  give  him 

sixpence.  — Spectator. 

7.  I  long  for  a  repose  which  ever  is  the  same. —  Wordsworth. 

8.  Thou  knowest  my  praise  of  nature  most  sincere, 
And  that  my  raptures  are  not  conjured  up 

To  serve  occasions  of  poetic  pomp, 

But  genuine,  and  art  partner  of  them  all. — Cowper. 

9.  There  were  two  fathers  in  this  ghastly  crew. — Byron. 

10.  When  he  read  the  note  from  the  two  ladies,  he  shook  his  head,  and 

observed  that  an  affair  of  this  sort  demanded  the  utmost  circumspec- 
tion. — Goldsmith. 

11.  What  matter  where,  if  I  be  still  the  same, 
And  what  I  should  be,  all  but  less  than  he 
Whom  thunder  hath  made  greater. — Milton. 

12.  Whilst  I  was  thus  musing,  I  cast  my  eyes  towards  the  summit  of  a 

rock  that  was  not  far  from  me,  where  I  discovered  one  in  the  habit 
of  a  shepherd,  with  a  little  musical  instrument  in  his  hand. — Ad- 


B. 

1.  The  gushing  flood  the  tartans  dyed. — Scott. 

2.  None  but  the  brave  deserves  the  fair. — Dry  den. 

3.  The  nurse  sleeps  sweetly,  hired  to  watch  the  sick 
Whom  snoring  she  disturbs. — Cowper. 

4.  Forth  in  the  pleasing  spring  thy  beauty  walks. — Thomson. 

5.  Not  to  know  me  argues  yourself  unknown. — Milton. 

6.  The  night  had  closed  in  before  the  conflict  on  the  boom  began.  - 

Macaulay. 

7.  When  kindness  had  his  wants  supplied, 
And  the  old  man  was  gratified, 

Began  to  rise  his  minstrel  pride. — Scott. 

8.  At  every  draught  more  large  and  large  they  grow, 
A  bloated  mass  of  rank,  unwieldy  woe  ; 

Till  sapp'd  their  strength,  and  every  part  unsound, 

Down,  down  they  sink,  and  spread  a  ruin  round. — Macaulay. 

9.  The  friends  thou  hast  and  their  adoption  tried, 
Grapple  them  to  thy  soul  with  hooks  of  steel ; 
But  do  not  dull  thy  palm  with  entertainment 

Of  each  new-hatch'd  unfledged  comrade. — Shaksptare. 
10.  His  spear,  to  equal  which  the  tallest  pine 
Hewn  on  Norwegian  hills  to  be  the  mast 
Of  some  great  ammiral  were  but  a  wand, 
He  walked  with,  to  support  uneasy  steps 
Over  the  burning  marie. — Milton. 

D 


PART   II. 
SYNTAX. 

192.  Syntax  (from  Greek  sun,  together,  and  taxis,  a  putting 
in  order)  treats  of  the  Agreement,  Government,  and  Arrange- 
ment of  words  in  sentences. 

NOTE. — In  this  text-book,  PARSING,  or  how  to  dispose  of  words,  which 
is  the  theoretical  part  of  Syntax,  is  carefully  separated  from  PRACTICAL 
SYNTAX,  or  those  rules  and  principles  that  are  of  real  application,  since 
they  may  be  violated  in  the  actual  forms  of  words.  The  syntax  of  each 
part  of  speech  is  taken  up  under  two  heads :  1st.  How  to  Parse  the  Part 
of  Speech  ;  2d.  The  Practical  Syntax  of  the  Part  of  Speech.  It  is  believed 
that  this  separation  of  what  is  purely  formal  from  those  rules  that  admit  of 
being  violated  in  the  inflections  of  words  will,  by  concentrating  the  attention 
of  the  learner  on  the  practical  part,  be  a  powerful  aid  in  learning  to  "speak 
and  write  English  correctly" — the  professed  design  of  English  Grammar. 

1.  Syntax  of  the  Verb. 
I.  How  TO  PAUSE  VERBS. 

193.  A  verb  in  a  sentence  is  parsed,  or  disposed  of,  by 
saying — 

It  makes  a  statement  about  its  subject  [naming  it],  and 
agrees  with  that  subject  in  number  and  person. 

194.  The  subject  of  a  verb  may  be — 

(1.)  A  noun:  England  [noun-subject]  was  conquered  by 
the  Normans;  Water  consists  of  oxygen  and  hy- 
drogen. 

(2.)  A  pronoun:  They  [pronoun-subject]  study  gram- 
mar; The  emperor  Napoleon  [noun -subject  of 
verb  died\  who  [pronoun-subject]  was  banished 
to  St.  Helena,  died  in  1820. 

(3.)  An  expression:  To  reach  the  Indies  [phrase-subject] 
was  the  object  of  Columbus;  Where  De  Soto  was 
buried  [clause -subject]  can  not  be  determined; 
That  you  have  wronged  me  [clause-subject]  doth 
appear  in  this. 

Expressions  like  '  to  reach  the  Indies'  are  called  phrases.  l  Where  De 
Soto  was  buried,'  '  that  you  have  wronged  me,'  are  called  clauses  [for  a  full 
explanation  of  phrases  and  clauses,  see  f  357  and  364].  Such  expressions 
are  parsed  as  in  the  third  person,  singular  number. 


HOW   TO   PAKSE    VERBS.  75 

195.  An  Infinitive  is  parsed  by  saying — 
It  depends  on  the  word — [naming  it]. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1.  Alexander  tried  to  conquer  [dependent  on  '  tried']  the 

whole  world. 
Here  the  infinitive  depends  on  another  VERB. 

2.  Washington  was  too  truthful  to  lie  [dependent  on  '  truth- 

ful']. 
Here  the  infinitive  depends  on  an  ADJECTIVE. 

3.  Howard  sought  opportunities  to  benefit  [dependent  on 

opportunities]  prisoners. 
Here  the  infinitive  depends  on  a  NOUN. 

4.  I  was  not  such  a  coward  as  to  run  [dependent  on  the 

expression  '  such  a  coward  as']. 
Here  the  infinitive  depends  on  an  expression  as  a  whole  ;  and  this  is 

often  the  case. 

NOTE. — Observe  that  when  an  infinitive  is  used  as  the  subject  ef  a  verb, 
it  performs  the  office  of  a  NOUN,  and  is  to  be  parsed  as  such.  EXAMPLE  : 
To  delay  is  dangerous=/)e/ay  is  dangerous. 

196.  A  Participle  is  parsed  by  saying- 
It  belongs  to  the  Noun  or  the  Pronoun — [naming  it]. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1.  A  Peri,  standing  at  heaven's  gate,  was  sad. 
The  participle  'standing'  belongs  to  the  noun  'Perf.' 

2.  Charles,  having  seen  me,  ran  into  the  house. 
The  participle  'having  seen'  belongs  to  the  noun  'Charles.' 

196.  A  Participle  is  frequently  used  purely  as  a  noun  or  as 
an  adjective.  In  such  cases  it  is  to  be  parsed  as  NOUN  or 
ADJECTIVE. 

[For  how  nouns  are  parsed,  see  ^[  217-223  ;  adjectives,  see  1  285-287.] 

1.  Talking  is  easier  than  acting =talk  is  easier  than  action 

=to  talk  is  easier  than  to  act. 
The  Tiown-use  of  the*  participle  is  here  evident. 

2.  The  running  water  was  cold  and  clear. 
The  adjective-use  of  the  participle  is  here  evident. 

Exercise  27. 

Dispose  of  the  VERBS  in  the  following  Sentences : 
^iP  Previously  to  the  syntactical  parsing,  the  Teacher  may  have  the 
scholar  go  through  the  forms  of  etymological  parsing  according  to  Model 
III.,  p.  68. 


76  SYNTAX. 

1 .  Pleasantly  rose  next  morning  the  sun  on  the  village  of  Grand-Pre. 

2.  Shell-fish  cast  their  shell  once  a  year. 

3.  English  style  begins,  at  the  earliest,  only  about  the  middle  of  the  four- 

teenth century. 

4.  The  eagle  and  the  stork  on  cliffs  and  cedar-tops  their  eyries  build. 

5.  The  air  gets  slowly  changed  in  inhabited  rooms. 

6.  In  the  present  day,  the  binding  of  a  book  illustrates  the  power  of  ma- 

chinery. 

7.  One  morn  a  Peri  at  the  gate  of  heaven  stood  disconsolate. 

8.  The  preparations  for  the  trial  proceeded  rapidly. 

9.  On  either  side  the  river  lie  long  fields  of  barley  and  rye. 

1 0.  Over  the  joyous  feast  the  sudden  darkness  descended. 

11.  The  green  trees  whispered  low  and  mild. 

12.  In  the  market-place  of  Bruges  stands  the  belfry,  old  and  brown — 
Thrice  consumed,  and  thrice  rebuilded,  still  it  watches  o'er  the  town. 

II.  PKACTICAL  SYNTAX  OF  THE  VEKB. 
197.  GENERAL  RULE. — A  Verb  must  be  in  the  proper  form 
required  by  its  subject;  and,  in  particular,  it  must  be  put  in  the 
Singular  Number  when  its  subject  is  Singular,  in  the  Plural 
Number  when  its  subject  is  Plural. 

NOTE. — The  rule  given  above  has  usually  been  stated  thus  :  "  A  verb 
must  agree  with  its  subject  nominative  in  number  and  person. "  The  prin- 
ciple in  either  form  is  a  frame-work  much  too  large  for  what  it  is  designed 
to  fit.  From  the  paucity  of  inflections  in  the  English  verb,  it  is  not  easy 
to  make  a  verb  disagree  with  its  subject.  Leaving  out  the  second  person 
singular  (never  used  in  ordinary  communication),  it  is  hardly  possible  for  a 
verb  to  disagree  with  its  subject  in  person.  And  even  in  regard  to  num- 
ber, it  is  in  but  a  few  instances  (named  in  the  next  paragraph)  that  a  verb 
can  be  wrong.  It  is  probable  that  the  rule  was  made  in  order  to  cover  the 
verb  To  Be^  which  has  numerous  changes,  or  inflections,  to  denote  number 
and  person.  In  this  text-book  the  verb  To  Be  is  treated  by  itself.  (See 
^[  207.)  The  rule  is  thus  greatly  simplified,  and  it  is  believed  that  the  pu- 
pil wrill  in  this  way  gain  a  much  more  practical  knowledge  of  the  syntax  of 
the  verb  than  he  is  likely  to  gain  when  mystified  by  the  abstractions  of  the- 
oretical "number  and  person." 

Inflections  of  the  English  Verb. 

^°  Note  this  table  carefully ;  it  shows  you  the  few  and  sole  instances  in 
which  you  can  make  mistakes  in  the  Number  of  a  Verb. 

Indicative  Mood. 

Present  Tense has  one  change  of  form — s  in  the  third  person 

singular :  thus,  '  he  loves;'  but  [I,  you,  we, 

they]  love. 

Present  Perfect  Tense- -being  formed  by  means  of  the  verb  ( have,  'pre- 
sents one  peculiarity — namely,  has  for  the  third 
person  singular ;  thus,  4  he  has  loved  ;'  but  [I, 
you,  we,  they]  have  loved. 


PRACTICAL   SYNTAX   OF   THE   VEKB.  77 

Subjunctive  Mood. 

Present  Tense Has  one  peculiarity  of  form — the  s  (the  sign  of 

the  third  singular  present  indicative)  is  absent 
in  the  subjunctive ,  thus, '  if  he  love,'  not '  if  he 
loves.' 

Present  Perfect  •  - being  formed  by  the  auxiliary  '  have,'  takes  the 

subjunctive  form  of  the  third  singular;  thus, 
'if  he  have  loved,'  not  'if  he  has  loved.' 

Illustrations  of  the  General  Rule. 

1.  John  likes  good  books. 

EXPLANATION. — 'Likes'  is  in  the  proper  form  to  accompany  'John.' 
Noun-subjects  are  considered  as  being  in  the  third  person,  and  '  likes'  is 
the  form  of  the  verb  peculiar  to  the  third  person  singular,  in  the  present 
tensa.  It  would  be  wrong  to  say  John  like  good  books,  because  '  like'  is 
not  the  form  peculiar  to  the  third  person  singular. 

2.  Hike  good  books. 

EXPLANATION. — '  Like'  is  in  the  proper  form  required  by  its  subject  'I :' 
it  agrees  with  '  I'  in  number  and  person.  I  likes  good  books  would  be  in- 
correct, because  '  likes'  is  the  form  peculiar  to  the  third  person,  singular 
number. 

3.  Peter  saw  the  play  of  Hamlet.    I  saw  it  also.    We  liked 

the  performance. 

EXPLANATION. — We  say  that '  saw'  agrees  with  Peter ;  that '  saw'  agrees 
with  '  I,'  and  that '  liked'  agrees  with  '  we.'  These  verbs,  being  in  the  past 
tense,  could  not,  however,  disagree  with  their  subjects,  for  the  past  tense 
has  no  peculiarities  of  form  for  the  several  numbers  and  persons. 

4.  I  walked  to  town.     He  walked  to  town.    We  walked  to 

town.     You  walked  to  town.    .  They  walked  to  town. 
EXPLANATION. — These  Verbs  are  parsed  each  as  "  agreeing  with  its  sub- 
ject in  number  and  person."     But  how  could  they  disagree  ? 

5.  Columbus  has  earned  immortal  renown.     They  have  de- 

served well  of  their  country. 

EXPLANATION. — '  Has  earned'  is  in  the  proper  form  required  by  the  sin- 
gular noun-subject '  Columbus  ;'  that  is,  the  auxiliary  '  has1  is  in  the  third 
person,  singular  number.  They  has  deserved  well  would  not  be  correct,  be- 
cause '  has'  is  the  auxiliary  of  the  singular ;  but  '  they'  is  plural,  hence  the 
auxiliary  should  be  'have.' 

6.  Though  he  slay  me,  yet  will  I  trust  in  him. 

EXPLANATION. — '  Slay'  agrees  with  '  he ;'  that  is,  it  is  in  the  form  prop- 
er to  accompany  the  third  person,  singular  number.  It  is  not  slays,  because 
the  verb  is  in  the  subjunctive  mood,  and — recollect — the  third  singular 
present  subjunctive  takes  no  s. 

The  Principle  how  Violated. 

198.  The  principle  that  a  verb  agrees  with  its  subject  is 
seldom  violated  in  short  sentences,  except  by  very  careless 


78  SYNTAX. 

people.  We  sees ;  The  shops  is  not  open,  are  mistakes  of 
very  ignorant  persons  only.  •But  in  long  sentences  the  verb 
may  not  be  referred  to  its  real  subject,  and  then  violations  of 
the  Rule  occur.  Hence  the  following  application  of  the  Rule : 
The  adjuncts  of  a  subject  have  nothing  to  do  with  the  num- 
ber of  the  subject;  hence  the  verb  must  agree  with  its  subject 
without  reference  to  the  adjuncts  of  the  subject. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1.  The  union  of  two  great  rivers  produces  the  Mississippi. 
EXPLANATION. — Here  the  verb  produces'  is  rightly  in  the  singular 

number,  because  the  subject  of  the  verb  is  'union,' which  is  singular.  It 
matters  not  that  the  subject  is  followed  by  the  phrase  '  of  two  great  rivers,' 
for  that  is  a  mere  adjunct. 

2.  His  reputation  was  great,  and  somewhat  more  durable 

than  that  of  similar  poets  have  generally  been. 
EXPLANATION. — Here  the  verb  have  is  in  the  wrong  number.  Its  sub- 
ject is  the  pronoun  '  that,'  which  is  singular,  whereas  '  have'  is  plural.  The 
cause  of  the  mistake  is  that  the  verb  '  have'  is  attracted  into  the  same  num- 
ber as  'poets ;'  but  as  the  phrase  'of  similar  poets'  is  a  mere  adjunct  of 
'  that,'  it  can  have  no  influence  on  the  number  of  the  verb. 

199.  Correct  the  following,  so  as  to  make  the  Verbs  agree 
with  their  real  subjects :  1.  The  condition  of  the  crops  show 
that  the  country  has  suffered  from  drouth.     2.  The  trend  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains  are  toward  the  South. 

The  Subject  a  Collective  Noun, 

200.  When  the  subject  is  a  collective  noun,  the  verb  is  singu- 
lar or  plural  according  as  the  sense  conveyed  is  of  one  collective 
mass  or  of  many  individuals. 

NOTE. — A  collective  noun  will  always  be  singular  in  form ;  but  the  num- 
ber to  be  attributed  to,  and,  consequently,  the  number  in  which  the  verb  is 
to  be  put,  will  depend  on  the  notion — whether  of  unity  or  plurality — of  the 
collective  noun  in  a  particular  sentence. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1.  The  jury  have  brought  in  their  verdict. 
EXPLANATION. — The  verb  'have'  is  incorrect,  because  the  subject,  the 

collective  noun  'jury,'  suggests  the  idea  of  the  body  as  a  whole.  Hence 
it  should  be  '  has  brought  in.'  In  like  manner,  the  pronoun  should  be  '  its,' 
not  their,  seeing  that  it  represents  a  noun  that  is  construed  as  singular. 

2.  The  jury  has  disagreed. 

EXPLANATION. — The  verb  'has'  is  incorrect,  because  the  noun  'jury'  as 
used  here  signifies  the  individuals  of  the  body  separately  regarded.  Hence 
it  should  be  ''have  disagreed. 


PRACTICAL    SYNTAX    OF   THE    VEKB.  79 

201.  Is  there  any  violation  of  this  rule  in  the  following? 

1.  The  Church  have  no  power  to  inflict  corporal  punishment. 

2.  A  detachment  of  two  hundred  men  were  immediately  sent. 

3.  The  public  is  often,  deceived  by  false  appearances. 

The  Subject  a  Relative  Pronoun. 

202.  When  the  immediate  subject  is  a  Relative  Pronoun,  the 
antecedent  of  the  Pronoun  determines  the  Number  of  the  Verb. 

NOTE. — As  the  relative  pronouns  have  no  peculiar  form  for  the  plural, 
these  pronouns  have  an  attributed  number  in  accordance  with  the  number 
of  the  antecedent. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1.  Ye  stars,  which  are  the  poetry  of  heaven. 
EXPLANATION.  —  Here  the  immediate  subject  is  the  relative  pronoun 

'  which. '    This  pronoun  is  construed  as  plural,  because  its  antecedent  'stars' 
is  plural ;  therefore  the  verb  takes  the  plural  form. 

2.  This  is  one  of  the  most  valuable^  books  that  has  ap- 

peared in  any  language. 

EXPLANATION. — Here  the  verb  'has'  is  in  the  wrong  number.  Its  im- 
mediate antecedent  is  the  relative  pronoun  ;  that;'  but  this  pronoun  is  con- 
sidered as  plural,  since  its  antecedent  '  books'  is  plural ;  therefore  '  has  ap- 
peared' should  be  '  have  appeared. ' 

When  the  antecedent  consists  of  a  noun  and  a  pronoun  in  apposition,  the 
relative  takes  the  number  and  the  person  of  the  pronoun,  and  the  verb 
agrees  with  the  relative  in  that  number  and  person  ;  as, 

It  is  I,  your  friend,  who  [1st  person  singular]  tell  you  to  go. 
But  if  the  relative  clause  belongs  to  the  noun  rather  than  to  the  pronoun, 
the  relative  is  considered  to  be  in  the  third  person,  and  the  verb  agrees  with 
it  in  that  person  ;  as, 

It  is  I,  the  friend  that  loves  you,  who  tell  you  to  go. 
The  first  sentence— I  (your  friend)  tell  you  to  go. 
The  second =1  (the  friend  that  loves  you)  tell  you  to  go. 

203.  Are  the  following  sentences  correct?     Bless  them  that 
curses  you.     2.  It  is  an  ill  wind  that  blow  nobody  good.     3. 
The  strata  that  contains  coal  belong  to  the  tertiary  era. 

Singular  Subjects  united  by  '  and.' 

204.  When  the  subject  consists  of  two  or  more  singular  Nouns 
united  by  'and,'  the  Verb  must  be  Plural. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1.  John  and  James  are  in  the  field. 

EXPLANATION. — Here  the  subject  is  'John'  and  'James,'  two  singular 
nouns  united  by  and.  Hence  the  verb  *  are'  is  plural. 


80  SYNTAX. 

2.  Mars  and  Jupiter  has  been  visible  this  week. 

EXPLANATION. — Here  the  subject  is  two  singular  nouns  connected  by 
'and;'  so  the  verb  should  be  plural.  Hence  ''has  been'  should  be  ''have 
been.' 

SPECIAL   APPLICATIONS    OF   THE  PRINCIPLE. 

(a)  The  principle  applies  equally  if  the  conjunction  '  and'  be  understood. 
Thus,  'Art,  empire,  earth  itself  to  change  are  doomed. '  But, 

(&)  If  the  two  nouns  are  names  for  the  same  object,  they  are  not  united 
copulatively ,  but  merely  in  an  explanatory  way ;  hence  there  is  no  real  plu- 
rality of  subject,  and  the  verb  must  be  singular.  The  spectator  and  his- 
torian of  his  exploit  has  observed ;  that  is,  a  single  person  who  was  at  once 
'  spectator'  and  '  historian'  of  his  exploit.  (If  two  persons,  the  one  specta- 
tor, the  other  historian,  were  intended,  the  article  would  be  repeated,  and 
then  the  verb  would  need  to  be  plural.  Thus  the  spectator  and  the  histo- 
rian of  his  exploit  have  observed.) 

(c)  Note  that  where  two  or  more  singular  subjects  almost  synonymous  in 
meaning  are  employed  for  the  sake  of  emphasis,  there  is  still  a  kind  of 
unity  in  the  subject ;  hence  the  singular  verb  is  used ;  as,  the  head  and 
front  of  his  offending  w\is  this ;  to  read  and  write  was  once  an  honorary 
distinction. 

(G?)  Sometimes  'and'  is  not  a  real  conjoiner,  but  has  the  sense  of  the  prep- 
osition with.  In  such  cases  there  is  no  plurality  of  subject,  and  the  verb 
must  be  singular.  EXAMPLE  :  Two  and  three  is  five.  This  does  not  mean 
'two  is  five,'  'three  is  five,'  but  two  with  three  is  five.  The  wheel  and 
axle  was  out  of  repair;  that  is,  the  'wheel  together  with  the  axle.'  We 
may  say  A  needle  and  a  thread  were  given  to  her,  but  she  could  not  thread 
the  needle — meaning  the  needle  and  thread  were  given  separately ;  A  nee- 
dle and  thread  was  given  to  her,  but  she  could  not  sew  on  the  button — 
meaning  that  a  threaded  needle  was  given  her. 

(e)  Here  is  a  peculiar  case :  '  The  captain  and  his  men  were  taken  pris- 
oners.'    Grammatically,  the  subject  'captain'  is  singular;  hence  the  verb 
should  be  was  taken  [prisoner] ;  but  the  sense  requires  the  plural.     The 
better  way  in  such  a  case  is,  if  we  mean  to  bring  to  notice  both  captain  and 
men,  to  say,  The  captain  and  his  men  were  taken  prisoners ;  or,  if  we  de- 
sire to  make  the  captain  alone  prominent, The  captain  was  taken  prisoner 
with  his  men. 

(f)  When  two  singular  nouns  are  coupled  by  as  well  as,  the  verb  is  sin- 
gular, as  there  are  in  reality  two  propositions.     'As  well  as'  makes  merely 
an  illustrative  comparison,  so  that  there  is  essential  unity  of  subject,  and 
hence  the  verb  must  be  singular ;  as,  Africa  as  well  as  Gaul  [after  the  man- 
ner of  Gaul]  was  gradually  fashioned  by  imitation  of  the  capital. 

(g)  When  two  subjects  are  connected  by  '  and,'  one  affirmative,  the  oth- 
er negative,  the  verb  agrees  with  the  affirmative ;  as,  our  own  heart,  and 
not  other  men's  opinion s,  forms  our  true  honor.     The  reason  of  this  is  that 
there  are  really  two  propositions — our  own  heart  forms  our  true  honor,  and 
other  men's  opinions  do  not  form  our  true  honor. 

(A)  When  two  or  more  singular  subjects  connected  by  and  are  preceded 
by  each,  every,  or  no,  the  verb  is  singular ;  as,  Every  limb  and  feature  ap- 
pears with  its  appropriate  grace. 


PRACTICAL   SYNTAX    OF   THE   VERB.  81 

Two  Singular  Subjects  joined  by  4  or'  or  '  nor.' 

205.  Two  or  more  Singular  Nouns  distributed  by  'or'  or  'nor' 
must  have  a  Singular  Verb. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1.  He  or  his  brother  has  the  book. 

2.  Neither  this  nor  that  is  the  thing  wanted. 

206.  When  one  of  two  subjects  separated  by  or  or  nor  is 
in  the  plural,  the  verb  should  be  plural.     He  or  his  servants 
were  to  blame.     It  is  proper  in  such  cases  to  place  the  plural 
nominative  next  to  the  verb. 

Exercise  28. 
Correct  the  false  SYNTAX  in  the  following  Sentences : 

1.  Ships  and  steamers  goes  to  sea.  2.  An  eminent  scholar  and  judicious 
critic  have  said  [1  204  6].  3.  Wherein  do  sit  the  dread  and  fear  of  kings 
[f  204  c].  4.  This  wine-and-water  are  hot  [^  204  d~\.  5.  Sir  Richard,  with 
several  others,  were  cited  to  the  Star  Chamber  [^f  204  e].  7.  Franklin  as 
well  as  Otis  were  born  in  Massachusetts  [1  204 /J.  7.  Our  will  and  not 
our  stars  make  us  what  we  are  [1  204  g].  8.  Every  house-top  and  every 
steeple  show  the  flag  of  the  republic  [^[  204  A],  9.  A  word  or  an  epithet 
paint  a  whole  scene  [^  205].  10.  Neither  the  captain  nor  the  sailors  was 
saved  [f  206]. 

THE  VEKB  '  To  BE.' 

207.  The  general  rule  for  the  agreement  of  Verbs  with 
their  subjects  in  number,  and  all  the  application  of  that  rule, 
apply  to  the  verb  to  be.     But  this  verb  has  an  additional 
point  of  agreement  with  its  subject,  namely, person. 

NOTE. — It  has  been  shown  that  the  English  verb  is  so  deficient  in  inflec- 
tions as  to  make  its  agreement  in  person  of  no  practical  importance.  It  is 
otherwise  with  the  verb  to  be.  A  review  of  its  conjugation  will  show  that 
it  has  numerous  changes,  making  it  truly  an  inflected  verb,  and  thus  re- 
quiring that  fuller  rule,  applicable  to  most  other  languages,  that  the  verb 
"agrees  with  its  subject  in  number  and  in  person."" 

ILLUSTKATIONS  OP  AGREEMENT  IN  NUMBER  AND  PERSON. 

1.  Tarn  studying;  he  is  studying;  we  are  studying;  schol- 

ars are  studying — illustrations  of  the  general  rule  of 
agreement  in  number  and  person. 

2.  The  condition  of  the  roads  is  bad — illustration  of  the 

principle  of  the  subject  with  adjuncts  [see  ^  198]. 
D2 


82  SYNTAX. 

3.  I,  who  am  an  American,  am  proud  of  my  country;  He, 

whom  the  truth  makes  free,  is  a  freeman ;  Ye  stars, 
which  are  the  poetry  of  heaven,  shine  above  us — il- 
lustrations of  the  principle  when  the  subject  is  a  rel- 
ative pronoun — [see  If  202]. 

4.  The  council  is  about  to  present  its  chairman  with  a 

portrait;  Tl*e  council  are  to  subscribe  for  the  por- 
trait— illustrations  of  agreement  with  a  collective 
noun  as  subject  [If  200]. 

5.  John  and  he  were  students — illustration  of  the  rule  as 

applied  to  singular  subjects  joined  by  and  [see  If  204]. 

6.  The  spectator  and  historian  of  his  exploits  is  said  to 

have  observed;  The  head  and  front  of  his  offending 
icas  this ;  Two  and  three  is  five ;  The  captain  with 
his  men  icas  taken  prisoner;  Jefferson,  as  well  as 
Franklin,  was  a  great  statesman  ;  Our  own  con- 
science, and  not  other  men's  opinions,  is  to  be  our 
guide ;  Every  limb  and  every  feature  is  clearly  seen 
— illustrations  of  double  subjects  with  unity  of  idea 
[see  T  204,  SPECIAL  APPLICATIONS]. 

7.  Charles  or  Richard  is  to  blame ;  Neither  Charles  nor 

Richard  was  to  blame — illustrations  of  singular  sub- 
jects joined  by  or  [see  Tf  205]. 

The  Verb  'to  be'  used  with  Subjects  of  different  Number  and  Person. 

208.  When  the  Verb  'To  Be'  has  for  its  subjects  two  or  more 
Pronouns  of  different  Persons  and  of  the  Singular  Number,  con- 
nected by '  or'  or '  nor/  it  agrees  in  number  and  person  with  the 
first  Pronoun. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1.  jTor  he  am  in  the  wrong. 

2.  He  or  I  is  in  the  wrong. 

3.  You  or  he  are  in  the  wrong. 

4.  He  or  you  is  in  the  wrong. 

209.  When  the  Pronouns  are  preceded  by  either  or  neither, 
the  Verb '  To  Be'  takes  the  third  Person  Singular. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1.  Either  he  or  Us  in  the  wrong. 

2.  Neither  he  nor  I  is  right. 


PRACTICAL  SYNTAX  OF  THE  VEKB.  83 

210.  The  same  rule  applies  when,  instead  of  two  Pronouns, 
a  Noun  and  a  Pronoun  are  used ;  as, 

1 .  Either  Mary  or  I  is  in  the  wrong. 

2.  I  or  Mary  am  to  go. 

3.  You  or  Thomas  are  unfortunate. 

4.  Either  Jane  orZis  right. 

5.  Neither  Hattie  nor  I  is  wrong. 

6.  Neither  /nor  Hattie  is  to  blame. 

The  type  of  sentences  exemplified  in  the  preceding  cases  is  not  to  be 
commended  as  illustrating  the  best  usage.  Such  sentences  are  common  in 
colloquial  use.  It  is  better  to  write,  Either  /  am  in  the  wrong,  or  he  is. 
Neither  John  is  right,  nor  am  I.  Is  James  or  I  to  go  ?  Better  thus,  Is 
James  to  go,  or  am  I  ? 

Two  Subjects — one  Affirmative,  the  other  Negative. 

211.  When  the  Verb ' To  Be'  has  two  subjects,  one  affirmative 
and  the  other  negative,  it  agrees  in  Number  and  in  Person 
with  the  affirmative  subject. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1.  He,  and  not  I,  is  chosen.  , 

2.  I,  and  not  they,  am  to  go. 

3.  Not  you,  but  Mary,  is  the  best  scholar. 

c 

A  Peculiar  Case. 

212.  When  a  noun  follows  the  verb  to  be,  it  is  not  always 
apparent  what  is  the  real  subject,  since  the  order  of  the  sen- 
tence is  sometimes  inverted.    The  rule  is  to  determine  by  the 
sense  what  is  the  real  subject,  and  make  the  verb  agree  with  it. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

His  pavilion  were  dark  waters  and  thick  clouds  of  the  sky. 

EXPLANATION. — Here  the  real  subject  follows  the  verb.  In  the  sen- 
tence '  The  wages  of  sin  is  death,'  the  verb  is  may  agree  with  '  death ;'  but 
it  also  agrees  with  *  wages,'  which  is  singular,  though  plural  in  form. 

Ellipsis  of  the  Verb. 

213.  Sometimes,  in  poetry,  the  verb  to  be  is  omitted. 

Sweet  the  hum 

Of  bees,  the  voice  of  girls,  the  song  of  birds, 
The  lisp  of  children  and  their  earliest  words. — Byron. 

Improper  Ellipsis. 

214.  Be  very  careful  not  to  make  any  ellipsis  of  the  auxiliary 
verb  Be  when  the  auxiliary,  if  supplied,  would  not  agree  with 
its  subject. 


84  SYNTAX. 


ILLUSTRATION. 

A  bundle  of  papers  was  produced,  and  such  particulars  as 
the  following  detailed. 

EXPLANATION. — There  is  an  ellipsis  of  the  auxiliary  before  the  participle 
'  detailed. '  But  this  ellipsis  is  improper,  because,  when  we  come  to  supply 
was  (expressed  before  '  produced'),  we  have  '  such  particulars  was  pro- 
duced,' which  is  ungrammatical.  The  auxiliary  were  should  be  supplied. 

A  Common  Error  in  Participles. 
Sailing  up  the  river,  the  whole  town  may  be  seen. 

EXPLANATION. — This  sentence  illustrates  a  common  error  in  the  use  of 
the  participle  introducing  a  phrase.  Sailing  (a  participle  construed  as  an 
adjective)  must  belong  to  some  noun ;  it  here  belongs  to  the  noun  river. 
But  it  is  certainly  not  intended  to  say  l  the  river  sailing ;'  the  idea  is  we 
sailing.  The  sentence  should  be,  *  Sailing  up  the  river,  we  may  see  the 
whole  £own. '  The  rule  is,  that  when  a  participle  introduces  a  phrase,  that 
participle  must  describe  the  subject  of  the  next  verb,  and  the  subject  of  the 
next  verb  must  be  what  is  intended  to  be  described. 

215.  Correct  the  following :  Hoping  that  I  shall  soon  hear 
from  you,  believe  me  yours  truly. 

2.  Syntax  of  the  Noun. 
I.  How  TO  DISPOSE  OF  NOUNS. 

216.  There  are  seven  functions  that  a  Noun  may  perform 
in  a  sentence. 

It  may  be — 

1.  Subject  of  a  Verb ; 

2.  Nominative  after  a  Neuter  Verb ; 

3.  Object  of  a  Transitive  Verb ; 

4.  Linked  by  a  Preposition ; 

5.  In  the  Possessive  Case ; 

6.  In  Apposition ; 

7.  Independent. 

These  are  all  the  possible  uses  of  the  noun  in  a  sentence.  It  must  have 
one  of  these  uses.  The  following  models  will  show  how  to  dispose  of  it 
when  in  any  of  these  relations. 

Noun,  Subject  of  a  Verb, 

217.  A  Noun  as  subject  of  a  Verb  is  disposed  of  by  saying 
that— 

It  is  in  the  Nominative  Case,  because  it  is  the  subject  of  the 
Verb  [naming  the  verb]. 


SYNTAX    OF   THE   NOUN".  85 

MODEL. — As  soon  as  morning  dawned  all  fears  were  dis- 
pelled. 

Morning a  noun,  is  the  nominative  to  '  dawned,'  since  it  is  that  of  which 

the  statement  is  made. 

Fears a  noun,  is  the  nominative  to  l  were  dispelled,'  since  it  is  that  of 

which  the  statement  is  made. 

NOTE. — A  noun,  the  subject  of  an  infinitive,  is  construed  in  the  objective 
case.  EXAMPLE  :  The  queen  perceived  Columbus  to  be  an  enthusiast. 
Here  c  Columbus'  is  parsed  as  in  the  objective  case,  though  the  form,  of 
course,  is  the  same  as  the  nominative.  If  a  pronoun  were  used  as  the 
subject  of  an  infinitive,  the  form  of  the  pronoun  would  mark  it  as  in  the 
objective  case.  Thus,  The  queen  perceived  him  to  be  an  enthusiast.  This 
construction  is  not,  strictly  speaking,  English  ;  it  is  an  imitation  of  a  Latin 
idiom.  Our  English  idiom  would  turn  such  sentences  thus  :  '  The  queen 
perceived  that  Columbus  was,  i  that  he  wasj  etc. 

Exercise  29. 
Dispose  of  the  SUBJECTS  in  the  following  Sentences: 

1.  Water  consists  of  two  gases. 

2.  Napoleon  went  to  Egypt  with  forty  sail  of  the  line. 

3.  Life's  but  a  walking  shadow. 

4.  The  bugle's  note  and  cannon's  roar  the  deathlike  silence  broke. 

5.  Seasons  return,  but  not  to  me  returns 

Day,  or  the  sweet  approach  of  even  or  morn, 

Or  sight  of  vernal  bloom,  or  summer's  rose, 

Or  flocks,  or  herds,  or  human  face  divine. — Milton. 

Noun,  Predicate-Nominative. 

218.  A  noun  after  a  neuter  or  a  passive  verb,  meaning  the 
same  thing  as  the  subject,  is  disposed  of  by  saying  that — 
It  is  in  the  Nominative  Case  after  the  Verb  [naming  it]. 

This  nominative  is  often  called  the  predicate-nominative. 
MODEL. — 1.  Tennyson  is  a  poet. 

Poet — a  noun,  is  in  the  nominative  case  (or  predicate-nominative)  after  the 
verb  'is.' 

2.  Washington  was  elected  President  in  1789. 

*  President'  is  predicate-nominative  after  the  passive  verb  *  was  elected.' 

Exercise  30. 
Dispose  of  the  PREDICATE-NOMINATIVES. 

1.  He  was  a  man ;  take  him  for  all  in  all,  I  shall  not  look  upon  his  like 

again. 

2.  Our  world  is  a  planet. 

3.  General  Grant  was  made  general-in-chief  in  1864. 

4.  Though  a  prisoner,  Mary  seemed  still  a  queen. 

5.  King  William  of  Prussia  became  Emperor  of  Germany  in  1871. 


86  SYNTAX. 

Noun,  Object  of  a  Transitive  Verb. 

NOTE. — Remember  that  transitive  verbs  are  incomplete,  and  require  a 
noun  or  the  equivalent  of  a  noun  in  order  to  make  full  sense.  The  noun 
that  is  used  as  the  complement  of  a  transitive  verb  is  called  its  object. 

219.  A  noun,  the  object  of  a  transitive  verb,  is  disposed  of 
by  saying  that — 

It  is  the  object  of  the  verb  [naming  if],  and  completes  the 
statement. 

MODEL. — The  muses  haunt  clear  spring,  or  shady  grove,  or 

sunny  hill. 

Spring — a  noun,  is  the  object  of  the  verb  '  haunt,'  and  completes  the  state- 
ment made  by  that  verb. 

Grove a  noun,  is  the  object  of  the  verb  '  haunt,'  and  completes  the  state- 
ment made  by  that  verb. 
Hill a  noun,  is  the  object  of  the  verb  '  haunt,'  since,  etc. 

Exercise  31. 

Dispose  of  the  NOUN  SUBJECTS  AND  NOUN  OBJECTS  in  the 
following  Sentences: 

1.  Their  furrow  oft  the  stubborn  glebe  has  broke. — Gray. 

2.  Beaux  banish  beaux,  and  coaches  coaches  drive. — Pope. 

3.  The  gushing  flood  the  tartans  dyed. — Scott. 

4.  The  plowman  homeward  plods  his  weary  way. — Gray. 

Noun  with  a  Preposition. 

220.  A  Noun  governed  by  a  Preposition  is  disposed  of  by 
saying  that — 

It  is  linked  by  the  Preposition  [naming  if]  to  such  and  such  a 
word  [naming  if]. 

MODEL. — The  man  with  the  gray  coat  fell  from  the  top  of 
the  wall. 

Coat a  noun,  is  linked  by  the  preposition  with  to  the  noun  man. 

Top a  noun,  is  linked  by  the  preposition  from  to  the  verb  fell. 

Wall — a  noun,  is  linked  by  the  preposition  of  to  the  noun  top. 

Exercise  32. 

Dispose  of  the  NOUNS  linked  by  PREPOSITIONS,  and  of  the 
NOUN  SUBJECTS  and  NOUN  OBJECTS  in  the  following  Sen- 
tences : 

1.  The  smiling  daisies  blow  beneath  the  sun. 

2.  The  army  crossed  the  river  by  a  bridge  made  of  pontoons. 

3.  Forth  in  the  pleasing  spring  thy  beauty  walks. — Thomson. 

4.  He  went  to  California  on  account  of  his  health. 

5.  Across  his  brow  his  hand  he  drew. 

6.  Advance  the  front  athwart  my  way. 


SYNTAX    OF   THE   NOUN.  87 


Noun  in  the  Possessive  Case. 

221.  A  Noun  in  the  Possessive  Case  is  disposed  of  by  say- 
ing that — 

It  describes  or  limits  the  Noun  [naming  it]. 

NOTE. — This  is  the^rinciple  that  disposes  of  Adjectives  also.  The  Pos- 
sessive Case  has,  in  fact,  always  the  use  of  an  adjunct. 

MODEL. — Seeking  the  bubble  reputation  at  the  cannon's 

mouth. 
Cannon's a  noun  possessive,  limiting  '  mouth. ' . 

Exercise  33.     • 
Dispose  of  the  POSSESSIVES. 

1.  Let  all  the  ends  thou  aims't  at  be  thy  country's  [ends],  thy  God's,  and 

truth's. 

2.  My  father  and  mother's  command  was  obeyed. 

3.  Quench  the  timber's  falling  embers, 
Quench  the  red  leaves  in  December's 

Hoary  rime  and  chilling  spray. — Whittier. 

4.  So  shall  the  Northern  pioneer  go  joyful  on  his  way, 

To  wed  Penobscot's  waters  to  San  Francisco's  Bay. — Ib. 

5.  Progress,  Liberty's  proud  teacher, 
Progress,  Labor's  sure  reward. 

Noun  in  Apposition. 

EXPLANATION. — A  noun  is  said  to  be  "in  apposition"  when  it  denotes 
the  same  person  or  thing  as  another  noun  or  pronoun,  and  when  both  are 
in  the  subject  or  in  the  predicate.  It  is  then  said  to  be  in  the  same  case  as 
the  noun  or  pronoun  which  it  explains.  EXAMPLE  :  Thomson,  the  poet, 
was  a  contemporary  of  Hume,  the  historian.  Here  'poet'  explains  'Thom- 
son,' and  is  said  to  be  in  apposition  with  it.  So  with  'historian'  and 
'Hume.' 

222.  A  N"oun  in  apposition  is  disposed  of  by  saying  that — 
It  is  in  apposition  with  the  Noun  or  the  Pronoun  [naming  /£], 

since  it  denotes  the  same  person  (or  thing). 

MODEL. — All  reclined,  a  man  of  war  and  woes. — Byron. 

Man a  noun,  is  in  apposition  with  the  noun  'Ali,'  since  it  denotes  the 

same  person. 

Exercise  34. 
Dispose  of  the  Nouns  in  APPOSITION. 

1.  'Tis  I,  Hamlet  the  Dane. 

2.  Washington,  the  Father  of  his  Country,  was  the  first  President  of  the 

United  States. 


88  SYNTAX. 

3.  Crown  her  queen  of  all  the  year. 

4.  Wisdom  and  truth,  the  offspring  of  the  sky,  are  immortal. 

5.  Tarquinius  Priscus,  a  son  of  a  citizen  of  Corinth,  was  elected  to  the  va- 

cant throne. 

Noun  Independent. 

EXPLANATION.  —  A  noun  is  said  to  be  independent  when  it  has  no  gram- 
matical relations  with  the  other  words  in  the  sentence.  EXAMPLE  :  Hora- 
tius,  saith  the  consul,  as  thou  sayest,  so  let  it  be.  Here  '  Horatius'  has  no 
grammatical  relation  with  any  other  word  in  the  sentence,  and  hence  is 
said  to  be  independent. 

223.  A  Noun  Independent  is  disposed  of  by  saying  that  — 
It  is  Independent,  since  it  has  no  grammatical  relation  to  any 
other  word  in  the  sentence. 

MODEL.  —  The  storm  having  ceased,  we  departed. 

Storm....  a  noun,  is  independent,  since  it  has  no  grammatical  relation  with 
any  other  word  in  the  sentence. 

Exercise  34. 
Dispose  of  the  NOUNS  INDEPENDENT. 

1.  Mary,  your  lilies  are  in  bloom. 

2.  False  wizard,  avaunt  ! 

3.  The  river  not  being  fordable,  we  had  to  make  a  great  detour. 

4.  Out,  out,  brief  candle. 

5.  God  willing,  I  shall  persevere  in  my  attempt. 


II.  PEACTICAL  SYNTAX  OF  THE 

224.  The  almost  total  absence  of  inflections  in  the  English 
Noun  leaves  the  practical  Syntax  of  this  part  of  speech  ex- 
ceedingly simple. 

NOTE.  —  The  Grammars  usually  admonish  us  that  "a  noun  used  as  the 
subject  of  a  finite  verb  must  be  in  the  nominative  case  ;"  but  it  would  be 
quite  impossible  to  violate  this  rule.  So  "a  noun,  the  object  of  a  verb, 
must  be  in  the  objective  case."  However,  as  there  is  no  peculiar  form  for 
the  objective  case,  no  error  can  be  committed.  It  is  very  different  in  in- 
flected languages.  We  say,  The  man  loves  me,  and  I  love  the  man.  In 
the  first  case  '  man'  is  subject,  in  the  second,  object  of  the  verb  ;  but  the 
form  is  identical.  In  Latin  these  sentences  would  read  Amo  hominem  and 
Homo  me  amat  —  different  forms  for  the  different  functions  of  the  noun. 
The  simplicity  in  the  syntax  of  our  English  noun  is  one  of  the  fine  points 
in  our  mother  tongue. 

THE  NOUN-SUBJECT  MUST  HAVE  A  VERB. 

225.  When  you  start  out  with  a  noun  designed  to  be  the  sub- 
ject of  a  verb,  see  that  that  noun  has  a  verb  of  which  it  is  the 
subject. 


PEACTICAL   SYNTAX    OF   THE   NOUN.  89 

ILLUSTRATION. 

Two  substantives,  when  they  come  together,  and  do  not 
signify  the  same  thing,  the  former  must  be  in  the  geni- 
tive case. 

EXPLANATION. — The  writer  starts  out  with  the  noun  'substantives,' 
which  is  so  placed  that  it  can  be  only  the  subject  of  a  verb ;  but,  before  he 
gets  through,  the  word  another  comes  in  as  the  subject  of  his  verb  must  be. 
The  word  of  at  the  beginning  of  the  sentence — '  Of  two  substantives, '  etc. 
— would  rectify  the  blunder. 

The  Possessive  Case. 

226.  The  only  points  of  difficulty  in  the  Syntax  of  Nouns 
occur  in  the  use  of  the  Possessive  Case.  Note  the  following 
illustrative  sentences : 

1.  I  have  read  a  play  of  ShaJcspeare* s,  the  great  English 

dramatist. 

EXPLANATION.— The  rule  in  such  cases  is,  that  when  nouns  stand  in  ap- 
position (as  '  dramatist'  and  '  Shakspeare'),  the  possessive  's  is  used  with 
only  one. 

2.  John,  William,  and  Mary's  share  was  five  thousand 

dollars. 

EXPLANATION. — The  rule  in  such  cases  is,  that  when,  in  a  string  of  nouns, 
joint  possession  is  meant,  the  possessive  's  is  used  only  with  the  last. 

3.  A  portrait  of  my  father. 
A  portrait  of  my  father's. 

EXPLANATION. — Observe  the  distinction  between  these  two  expressions. 
A  portrait  of  my  father  means  a  likeness  of  himself.  A  portrait  of  my  fa- 
ther's means  one  portrait  of  my  father's  collection  of  portraits.  This  lat- 
ter employment  of  the  possessive  case  is  called  its  partitive  use. 

The  thing  spoken  of  in  the  singular  number  is  always  understood  in 
the  plural  number  after  the  possessive.  i  A  house  of  my  uncle's'— a  house 
out  of  my  uncle's  houses. 

4.  Day  and  night  are  a  consequence  of  the  earth's  revolv- 

ing on  its  axis. 

EXPLANATION. — This  sentence  illustrates  a  striking  peculiarity  of  En-  ^ 
glish  syntax,  and  one  that  has  greatly  puzzled  grammarians,  namely,  the 
possessive  case  associated  with  a  participial  form.  The  explanation  is  that 
in  all  such  cases  the  verbal  in  -ing  is  a  real  Infinitive  (see  ^[  171).  As  an 
infinitife,  it  has  the  function  of  a  noun,  and,  as  such,  may  be  preceded  by  a 
possessive  case  describing  it.  Thus  the  '  earth's  revolving'  is  equivalent  to 
the  'earth's  revolution.'  The  test  of  the  noun  character  of  a  participle  is 
to  see  if  we  can  substitute  a  possessive  pronoun  for  the  possessive  noun. 
Thus  we  can  substitute  its  revolving  for  '  the  earth's  revolving.' 

***  The  verbal  in  -ing,  which,  as  an  infinitive,  has  thus  the  use  of  a  noun, 
retains  at  the  same  time  its  governing  power  as  a  verb,  and  hence  it  may 
take  an  object  after  it ;  as, '  disease  or  death  were  consequences  of  the  man's 
[possessive]  neglecting  treatment'  [object]. 


90  SYNTAX. 

Wrong  Placing  of  Possessive  Phrases. 

227.  The  following  illustrates  a  common  error  in  the  plac- 
ing of  possessive  phrases : 

The  death  was  announced  lately  of  the  great  statesman. 

EXPLANATION. — The  possessive  phrase  '  of  the  great  statesman'  belongs 
to  death:  the  phrase  should  be  near  the  noun  it  describes ;  thus,  'The  death 
of  the  great  statesman  was,'  etc.  Never  put  a  possessive  phrase  in  the 
predicate  when  the  noun  to  which  it  belongs  is  in  the  subject. 

Possessive  Inflection  when  used. 

228.  The  Possessive  Inflection  is  used  only  when  some  idea 
of  ownership  is  present,  and  hence  is  limited  mainly  to  per- 
sons and  to  personified  objects.     When  we  wish  to  denote 
merely  an  adjunct  or  accompaniment  of  a  noun,  we  use  the 
phrase-form  with  the  preposition  of.     Thus  we  may  say  '  The 
man's  occupation,' '  Time's  hoary  locks,' '  the  President's  mes- 
sage,' '  death's  fatal  arrow,'  but  not  '  the  house's  roof  (the 
roof  of  the  house),  '  the  street's  width'  (the  width  of  the 
street). 

Possessive  Phraseology  how  varied. 

229.  Whenever  the  possessive  phraseology  is  felt  to  be 
awkward,  we  may  avoid  it  by  using  the  preposition  of  or  by. 
Thus,  instead  of  saying  Alexander  the  Great's  conquest  of 
Babylon,  we  may  say  The  conquest  of  Babylon  by  Alexander 
the  Great. 

230.  Vary  the  expression  of  this  sentence:  This  opinion  is 
Newton  the  astronomer's. 

Ellipsis  of  the  described  Noun. 

231.  Sometimes  there  is  an  ellipsis  of  the  noun  described 
by  the  possessive.     EXAMPLE: — Whose  is  this  image  and 
superscription  ?     They  say  unto  him,  Caesar's  [image  and  su- 
perscription]. 

The  Verbal  in  -ing. 

232.  When  a  verbal  in  -ing  is  preceded  by  the  definite  arti- 
cle, or  by  the  Demonstrative  this  or  that,  it  must  be  followed 
by  the  preposition  of.     But  if  there  is  no  the,  there  must  be 
no  of. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1.  The  rising  o/*the  sun  was  splendid. 

2.  Receiving  this  news  gave  us  much  pleasure. 


PRACTICAL   SYNTAX    OF   THE   PRONOUN.  .  91 

EXPLANATION. — In  the  former  case  the  verbal  in  -ing  is  a  true  noun; 
in  the  latter  it  is  an  infinitive.  Such  phrases  as  the  following  are  needless 
and  ungraceful,  and  truly  un-English  :  '  The  betraying  of  a  trust ;'  '  The 
receiving  of  a  letter. '  These  verbals  are  not  wanted,  because  we  have  the 
true  nouns  betrayal,  receipt,  etc. 

3.  Prompted  by  the  most  extreme  vanity,  he  persisted  in 
the  writing  bad  verses. 

EXPLANATION. — The  use  of  the,  if  correct,  would  require  writing  to  be 
followed  by  0/7-'  the  writing  o/bad  verses.'  But  the  is  not  correctly  used. 
Writing  is  here  a  real  infinitive,  and  an  infinitive,  being  an  abstract  noun, 
can  take  no  article ;  hence  the  sentence  should  be  '  in  writing  bad  verses.' 

233.  Correct  the  following:  1.  Much  depends  on  this  rule 
being  observed.     2.  The  building  the  house  is  going  on. 

3.  Syntax  of  the  Pronoun. 
I.  How  TO  DISPOSE  OF  PRONOUNS. 

234.  The  Pronoun  has  the  same  functions  as  the  Noun; 
that  is,  it  may  be — 

1.  Subject  of  a  Verb. 

2.  Nominative  after  a  Neuter  or  Passive  Verb. 

3.  Object  of  a  Transitive  Verb. 

4.  Governed  by  a  Preposition. 

5.  In  the  Possessive  Case. 

6.  In  Apposition. 

7.  Independent. 

235.  The  Pronoun,  having  the  same  use  as  the  Noun,  is 
parsed  in  the  same  way  as  the  Noun. 

&T  Review  How  to  Dispose  of  a  Noun,  ^f  215. 

II.  PRACTICAL  SYNTAX  OF  THE  PRONOUN. 

236.  GENERAL  RULE.  —  Pronouns  should  agree  in  Gender 
and  in  Number  with  their  antecedents,  or  with  the  Nouns  or 
the  Pronouns  "that  they  represent. 

NOTE.— This  is  the  most  important  practical  principle  in  the  Syntax  of 
Pronouns.  It  is  also  the  one  that  is  most  frequently  violated.  "The 
greatest  care  ought  always  to  be  taken  in  using  Pronouns,  because,  being 
small  words,  and  in  frequent  use,  the  proper  weight  of  them  is  very  often 
unattended  to." — Cobbett's  English  Grammar. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1.  Had  the  opinion  of  my  censurers  been  unanimous,  it 
might  have  overset  my  resolutions ;  but  since  I  find 
them  at  variance  with  each  other,  I  can,  without 
scruple,  neglect  them  \it\,  and  follow  my  own  imagi- 
nation.— Dr.  Johnson. 


92  SYNTAX. 

EXPLANATION. — Notice  the  pronoun  them,  and  see  if  you  can  tell  what 
noun  it  is  meant  to  represent.  A  careful  reading  of  the  sentence  will  show 
that  the  pronoun  them  was  designed  to  stand  for  the  word  '  opinion. '  It  is 
the  opinion  that  was  not  unanimous :  hence  the  writer  correctly  says  '  it 
fi.  e.,  the  opinion]  might  have  overset  my  resolutions.'  It  was  this  'opin- 
ion' that  he  could  neglect,  not  his  'censurers,'  which  he  carelessly  makes 
the  represented  noun,  and  hence  uses  '  them'  instead  of '  it.' 

2.  When  a  verb  governs  a  relative  pronoun,  it  is  placed 

after  it. —  Chambers^  Grammar. 

EXPLANATION. — This  sentence  illustrates  a  careless  use  of  the  pronoun. 
It  is  not  easy  to  tell  which  it  represents  '  verb'  and  which  '  pronoun. ' 

3.  Men  look  with  an  evil  eye  upon  the  good  that  is  in 

others,  and  think  that  their  reputation  obscures 
them,  and  that  their  commendable  qualities  do  stand 
in  their  light ;  and  therefore  they  do  what  they  can 
to  cast  a  cloud  over  them,  that  the  bright  shining  of 
their  virtues  may  not  obscure  them. — Bishop  Tillot- 
son. 

EXPLANATION. — The  above  sentence  has  two  subjects,  and  we  can  not 
tell  from  the  construction  to  which  of  the  two  the  pronouns  refer.  In  fact, 
the  sentence  is  a  complete  muddle  of  pronouns. 

The  Rule  as  applied  to  Nouns  connected  by  '  and.' 

237.  When  two  or  more  Nouns  are  connected  by  'and/  the 
Personal  Pronoun  used  to  represent  them  must  be  in  the  Plural 
Number. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

He  was  fonder  of  nothing  than  of  wit  and  raillery,  but  he 
was  far  from  being  happy  in  it. — Dr.  Blair. 

EXPLANATION. — As  in  this  sentence  the  pronoun  it  was  designed  to 
represent  the  two  nouns  'wit'  and  'raillery,'  them  should  have  been  used 
instead  of  it. 

238.  Correct  the  following :  Both  Cato  and  Cicero  loved  his 

country. 

Nouns  connected  by  '  or.' 

239.  When  two  or  more  Singular  Nouns  or  Pronouns  are  con- 
nected by  *  or/  the  pronoun  used  to  represent  them  must  be  in 
the  singular  number. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

When  he  shoots  a  partridge,  a  woodcock,  or  a  pheasant,  he 
gives  them  away. 


PRACTICAL  SYNTAX  OF  THE  PKONOUN.          93 

EXPLANATION. — As  the  represented  nouns  are  singular  and  connected 
by  or,  it  should  be  used  in  place  of  them. 

240.  C orrect' the  following :  Man  is  not  such  a  machine  as  a 

watch  or  a  clock,  which  move  merely  as  they  are 
moved. 

Collective  Nouns. 

241.  Collective  Nouns  require  singular  or  plural  Pronouns  ac- 
cording to  whether  they  convey  the  idea  of  unity  or  of  plurality. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1.  The  clergy  began  to  withdraw  themselves.  —  Black- 

stone. 

2.  The  populace,  unfortunately  for  their  own  comfort,  etc. 

242.  Correct  the  following :  1.  The  multitude,  with  all  its 
means  of  instruction.    2.  The  army  dragged  themselves  along 
through  the  mud. 

Each,  Every,  Either,  One,  None,  Etc. 

243.  Very  frequent  violations   of  the  general  rule  occur 
when  Pronouns  are  used  to  represent  the  words  each,  every, 
either,  one,  or  nouns  preceded  by  one  of  these  words.     RULE  : 
These  words  have  all  a  singular  meaning,  and  must  be  repre- 
sented by  singular  Pronouns. 

ILLUSTRATIONS.- 

1.  Franklin  and  Lawrence  were  distinguished  patriots: 

each  served  their  country  well. 

EXPLANATION. — In  this  sentence  the  pronoun  '  their'  is  used  to  repre- 
sent the  pronoun  'each;'  but  'each'  has  a  singular  meaning,  and  hence 
should  be  represented  by  a  singular  pronoun — '  each  served  his  country 
well.' 

2.  Every  person  is  the  architect  of  their  own  fortune. 

EXPLANATION. — Here  the  pronoun  '  their'  is  used  to  represent  the  sin- 
gular noun  'person,'  and  hence  should  be  singular — 'the  architect  of  his 
own  fortune. '  What  causes  the  mistake  is  the  notion  of  plurality  in  the 
word  '  every ; '  but  recollect  that  '  every'  is  grammatically  singular. 

3.  John  and  James  have  been  late  for  a  week :  if  either 

are  absent  from  their  seat  at  nine  to-morrow  they  will 
be  kept  in. 

EXPLANATION. — Here  the  pronouns  '  their'  and  '  they'  are  used  to  repre- 
sent 'either,'  which  is  singular;  hence  singular  pronouns  and  the  singular 
verb  should  be  used.  'If  either  is  absent  from  his  seat,  he  will,'  etc. 


o 


94  SYNTAX. 

4.  One  is  seldom  at  a  loss  what  to  do  with  their  money. 
EXPLANATION. — As  *  one'  is  the  represented  word  and  singular,  'his,' 

instead  of '  their,'  should  be  used. 

5.  Every  boy  and  girl  must  learn  their  lesson. 
EXPLANATION. — This  sentence  presents  a  peculiarity.     Under  the  verb 

(see  Tf  204,  h)  we  saw  that  two  singular  nouns  coupled  by  *  and'  do  not  take 
the  plural  verb  when  preceded  by  '  every.'  Hence  the  pronoun  represent- 
ing them  should  be  singular  also,  and  the  sentence  should  read, '  Every  boy 
and  girl  has  learnt  his  lesson. '  But  the  sentence  presents  a  further  pecul- 
iarity ;  there  are  two  genders  to  be  represented.  Now  in  English  we  have 
no  pronouns  of  the  common  gender.  In  such  cases  it  is  customary  to 
make  the  masculine  pronoun  stand  for  both  genders. 

6.  Every  teacher  is  required  to  make  his  or  her  report. 
EXPLANATION. — When  we  wish  specially  to  distinguish  the  sexes  we 

use  the  above  form ;  but  all  difficulty  may  be  avoided  by  employing  the 
plural  form  of  the  noun  and  the  pronoun — thus,  'All  teasers  are  required 
to  make  their  reports.' 

244.  Correct  the  false  syntax  of  the  Pronouns:  1.  Every 
one  must  judge  of  their  own  feelings. — Byron.     2.  Had  the 
doctor  been  contented  to  take  my  dining-t ables,  as  any  body 
in  their  senses  would  have  done. — Miss  Austin.     3.  Not  on 
outward  charms  should  man  or  woman  build  their  preten- 
sions to  please. —  Opie. 

Pronouns  the  Subjects  of  Verbs. 

245.  A  pronoun  used  as  the  subject  of  a  verb  must  be  in  the 
nominative  case. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

This  is  a  man  whom  I  think  deserves  encouragement. 

EXPLANATION. — Transposing  the  parenthetical  expression,  /  think,  we 
have  the  sentence,  '  I  think  this  is  a  man  whom  deserves  encouragement. ' 
You  see,  of  course,  that  this  is  wrong :  whom  is  designed  to  be  subject  of 
the  verb  deserves,  and  hence  it  should  be  who  deserves. 

246.  Violations  of  this  rule  most  frequently  occur  in  ellip- 
tical sentences  when  the  verb  is  omitted. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1.  Is  she  as  tall  as  me? — ShaJcspeare. 

2.  She  suffers  hourly  more  than  me. — Swift. 

3.  The  nations  not  so  blessed  as  thee. — Thomson. 

4.  It  is  not  for  such  as  us  to  sit  with  the  rulers  of  the 

land.  —  Walter  Scott. 

5.  She  was  neither  better  nor  wiser  than  you  or  me. — 

Thackeray. 


PRACTICAL    SYNTAX    OF   THE    PRONOUN.  95 

EXPLANATION. — The  above  sentences,  each  by  a  famous  author,  all  vio- 
late the  rule.  The  blunder  becomes  very  plain  when  we  supply  the  el- 
lipsis— thus,  (1)  'as  tall  as  me  am,'  (2)  'more  than  me  doj  (3)  'not  so 
blessed  as  thee  art,'  (4)  '  such  as  us  are,'  (5)  '  than  you  or  me  are.' 

247.  Correct  the  following :  Is  James  as  old  as  me  ?    2.  Such 
a  man  as  him  could  never  be  President. 

Improper  Ellipsis  of  the  Pronoun  Subject. 

248.  The  following  sentences  illustrate  an  improper  ellipsis 
of  the  Pronoun  Subject : 

1.  It  is  thinking  makes  what  we  read  ours. 
EXPLANATION. — The  relative  that  should  be  supplied  after  'thinking;' 

makes  has  otherwise  no  subject. 

2.  There  is  and  must  be  a  Supreme  Being  who  created 

and  supports  us. — Beattie. 

EXPLANATION. — This  should  be  '  There  is  and  there,  must  be  a  Supreme 
Being  who  created  and  who  supports  us.' 

3.  Roots  are  either  native  or  foreign,  and  sometimes  much 

disguised. — KerVs  Grammar. 

EXPLANATION. — Better  thus,  Roots  are  either  native  or  they  are  foreign, 
in  which  latter  case  they  are  sometimes  much  disguised. 

249.  The  rule  in  such  cases  is  that — 

When  Verbs  are  used  in  different  Voices,  Moods,  or  Tenses, 
or  when  they  are  emphatically  distinguished,  the  Subject  or 
an  equivalent  Pronoun  must  be  repeated. 

The  Pronoun  used  Redundantly. 

250.  In  poetry  the  subject  is  sometimes  repeated  in  the 
form  of  a  pronoun  used  along  with  the  noun ;  as,  The  count 
he  was  left  to  the  vulture  and  hound  ;  To  be  or  not  to  be 
[phrase-tsubject],  that  [pronoun-subject]  is  the  question.     But 
this  is  not  allowable  in  prose  except  where  special  emphasis 
is  designed. 

'  My  father  he  said  that  I  must  go'  is  incorrect.  We  might,  however, 
say,  'A  man  that  wears  the  livery  of  heaven  to  serve  the  devil  in,  he  is  not 
to  be  trusted,'  because  here  special  emphasis  is  desired. 

Pronoun  after  the  Verb  To  Be. 

251.  A  Pronoun  used  as  the  complement  of  the  Verb  '  To  Be' 
must  be  in  the  same  case  as  the  subject  of  that  Verb. 

In  violation  of  this  rule,  we  often  hear,  in  the  ordinary  conversation  of 
all  classes  of  society,  such  expressions  as,  'Who  is  it?  mef  'It  was  her;1 
4 It  is  them;'  '  It  is  us.'  Indeed,  some  grammarians  (as  Dean  Alford  and 


96  SYNTAX. 

Mr.  Bain)  defend  these  forms  as  allowable,  but  there  seems  to  be  no  suffi- 
cient justification  for  these  wide  departures  from  the  regular  syntax  of  our 
language. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1.  It  was  he  that  secured  our  liberty. 

EXPLANATION. — Here  he  is  in  the  nominative  case,  because  it,  the  sub- 
ject of  is,  is  in  the  nominative. 

2.  We  knew  it  to  be  him. 

EXPLANATION. — Here  him  is  properly  in  the  objective  case,  for  the  rea- 
son that  it,  being  the  subject  of  the  infinitive  to  be,  is  in  the  objective  case. 

3.  Let  him  be  who  he  might  be. 

EXPLANATION. — In  a  sentence  like  this  it  is  very  common  to  hear  people 
say  whom  instead  of  who,  as  if  they  thought  the  relative  was  in  apposition 
to  him.  This  is  not  the  case.  The  sentence  is  very  elliptical.  Fully  ex- 
pressed, it  would  stand  thus :  Let  him  be  (the  man)  who  he  might  be. 
Him  is  objective,  because  the  subject  of  the  infinitive  (to)  be.  Who  is  nom- 
inative, because  the  verb  might  be  (of  which  it  is  the  complement)  has  for 
its  subject  he,  in  the  nominative  case. 

252.  Point  out  the  violations  of  this  rule  in  the  following : 
1.  It  is  not  me  whom  you  are  in  love  with. — Addison.     2.  If 
there  is  one  character  more  base  than  another,  it  is  him  who, 
etc. — Sydney  Smith.   3.  It  could  not  have  been  her.   4.  Whom 
say  ye  that  I  am  ? 

Pronoun  as  Object. 

253.  A  Pronoun  used  as  the  object  of  a  Transitive  verb  must 
be  in  the  objective  case. 

NOTE. — This  rule  is  seldom  violated  when  the  pronoun  immediately  fol- 
lows the  verb.  It  is  only  when  the  object  is  at  some  distance  from  the 
verb,  or  when  the  sentence  is  elliptical,  that  the  nominative  form  of  the 
pronoun  is  liable  to  be  used,  'He  that  flatters  too  much,  do  not  believe,'  for 
'him  that  flatters,'  etc.  Here  him  is  the  object  of  the  verb  '  believe.' 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1.  Who  do  you  take  me  to  be  ? 

EXPLANATION. — Here  'who'  should  be  whom,  because  the  relative  is 
used  after  '  to  be,'  and  is  in  apposition  with  'me,'  the  object  of  the  transi- 
tive verb  take. 

2.  Who  should  I  meet  the  other  day  but  him. 
EXPLANATION. — The  relative  is  here  the  object  of  the  verb  'should 

meet,'  and  must  take  the  objective  form. 

254.  Point  out  the  violations  of  this  rule  in  the  following : 

1.  My  father  allowed  my  brother  and  I  to  accompany  him. 

2.  Let  you  and  she  advance. 


PRACTICAL  SYNTAX  OF  THE  PRONOUN.          97 

The  Pronoun  Used  in  Apposition. 

255.  When  a  Pronoun  is  put  in  apposition  with  a  noun  used 
as  the  object  of  a  verb  or  of  a  preposition,  the  pronoun  must  be 
in  the  objective  case. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1.. Peter's  sister  married  John  Brown — him  that  I  told 

you  about. 
2.  Mary  bought,  a  bonnet  from  the  milliner — her  that 

keeps  a  shop  in  Montgomery  Street. 

NOTE. — Sentences  like  the  preceding  are  used  colloquially.  The  better 
form  is  to  use  the  relative  pronoun  instead  of  the  personal ;  as,  John  Brown 
whom  I  told  you  about ;  The  milliner  who  keeps,  etc. 

Pronouns.    Object  of  Prepositions. 

256.  A  pronoun  linked  by  a  preposition  must  be  in  the  ob- 
jective case. 

NOTE. — This  rule  is  seldom  violated  when  the  pronoun  immediately  fol- 
lows the  preposition.  Nobody  would  say  I  gave  it  to  he ;  but  people  read- 
ily commit  such  errors  as  Who  did  you  get  that  book  from  ?  In  the  latter 
sentence,  the  distance  of  the  pronoun  from  the  governing  preposition  is  the 
occasion  of  the  blunder. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1.  Who  did  you  speak  to? 

This  should  be  iWhom  did  you  speak  to?' 

2.  No  one  but  he  [him]  should  be  about  the  king. — Shah- 

speare. 

257.  Correct  the  following :  1.  Between  you  and  I,  all  is  not 
gold  that  glitters.    2.  Who  servest  thou  under  ? — Shakspeare. 

The  Pronoun  'It.' 

258.  The  double  use  of  the  pronoun  it—- its  ordinary  use 
and  its  idiomatic  use  in  introducing  a  sentence  [see  ^  48]  is 
a  frequent  cause  of  ambiguity. 

NOTE. — Cobbett,  in  his  Grammar,  says  "  the  word  it  is  the  greatest 
troubler  that  I  know  of  in  language.  It  is  so  small,  and  so  convenient, 
that  few  are  careful  enough  in  using  it.  Never  put  an  it  on  paper  without 
thinking  well  what  you  are  about." 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1.  I  am  going  to  mention  the  matter.    It  is  right  that  it 
should  be  mentioned. 
E 


98  SYNTAX. 

EXPLANATION. — The  first  it  here  introduces  the  sentence  (idiomatic 
use) ;  the  second  refers  to  '  the  matter, '  and  some  confusion  results  from 
the  double  reference. 

2.  It  is  a  sign  of  great  prudence  to  be  willing  to  receive 
instruction ;  the  most  intelligent  persons  sometimes 
stand  in  need  of  it. 

EXPLANATION. — This  sentence  would  be  better  thus — using  a  noun  in 
place  of  the  first  'it:'  'Willingness  to  receive  instruction  is  a  sign  of  great 
prudence ;  the  most  intelligent  persons  sometimes  stand  in  need  of  it. ' 

Each  Other  and  One  Another. 

259.  Of  these  reciprocal  pronouns,  the  former  is  used  when 
we  are  speaking  of  two  persons ;  the  latter  when  we  speak  of 
more  than  two. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1.  Righteousness  and  peace  have  kissed  each  other. 

2.  If  God  so  loved  us,  we  ought  to  love  one  another. 

260.  Correct  the  following:  1.  As  Time  devours  his  children, 
so  they  endeavor  to  devour  each  other. — Bacon.     2.  Did  we 
(mankind)  but  love  each  other,  it  would  be  something. — Gold- 
smith. 

Politeness  in  Pronouns. 

261.  When  you  use  singular  pronouns  of  different  persons, 
put  he  or  she  before  I,  and  you  before  I,  or  he,  or  she ;  as, 
He  and  I  will  go.     You  and  he  will  go.     My  cousin  and  I 
will  go.      You  or  James  will  go. 

262.  With  the  plural  pronouns,  we  has  the  first  place,  you 
the  second,  and  they  the  third ;  as,  we  and  they  start  to-mor- 
row. 

EXPLANATION. — The  reason  of  the  difference  in  the  position  of  the  sin- 
gular and  of  the  plural  pronouns  is  this :  In  the  singular  number,  the  speak- 
er (/)  puts  himself  after  the  person  spoken  to  and  the  person  spoken  of,  as 
a  matter  of  politeness.  But  in  the  plural  number,  for  the  same  reason,  he 
puts  those  who  are  most  intimately  associated  with  him  in  the  first  place 
(unavoidably  including  himself  and  making  '  we'),  then  the  persons  spoken 
to,  and  then  those  spoken  of. 

General  Rule  for  Relatives. 

263.  The  Relative  Pronouns  are  who,  which,  and  that.   They 
should  be  placed  as  near  as  possible  to  their  antecedents,  and 
there  should  be  no  ambiguity  as  to  what  their  antecedents  are. 


PRACTICAL   SYNTAX    OF   THE   PKONOUN.  99 

ILLUSTRATION. 

The  soldier  who  disobeyed  his  officer  was  punished  for 
the  offense. 

EXPLANATION. — The  antecedent  of 'who'  is  l  soldier/  and  the  pronoun 
is  correctly  placed  next  to  that  antecedent ;  but  the  sentence  would  be  in- 
elegant if  we  should  say, '  The  soldier  was  punished  for  the  offense,  who 
disobeyed  his  officer.' 

Position  of  Relatives. 

264.  In  ordinary  cases,  the  first  noun  that  precedes  the  rel- 
ative should  be  its  antecedent.     But  there  are  two  kinds  of 
sentences  that  do  not  admit  of  this  construction. 

265.  The  first  type  is  represented  by  the  following: 
Solomon,  the  son  of  David,  who  built^the  Temple. 
EXPLANATION. — The  noun  immediately  preceding  the  relative  '  who'  is 

David;  but  the  real  antecedent  is  Solomon,  not  David.  The  principle  in 
such  cases  is,  that  when  a  noun  has  another  noun  in  apposition  with  it,  the 
relatives  *  who'  and  '  which'  refer  to  the  principal  noun  and  not  to  the  ex- 
planatory noun. 

Now,  if  we  wish  to  make  a  reference  to  the  explanatory  word,  the  pro- 
noun 'that,'  and  not  'who'  or  'which,'  should  be  used;  as,  Solomon,  the 
son  of  David  that  slew  Goliath,  built  the  Temple.  In  such  instances  the 
noun  before  '  that'  takes  no  comma. 

266.  The  second  type  of  sentence  is  represented  by  the  fol- 
lowing: 

The  Indians  constructed  huts  covered  with  the  skins  of 
wild  animals,  which  formed  their  rude  habitations. 

EXPLANATION. — The  noun  immediately  preceding  the  relative  which  is 
'animals;'  but  the  real  antecedent  is  huts,  not  'animals.'  The  principle 
in  such  cases  is,  that  when  a  noun  is  followed  by  adjunct  nouns,  the  relative 
who  or  which  relates  to  the  principal  noun  and  not  to  the  adjunct  nouns. 
In  such  cases,  do  not  separate  '  that'  from  its  antecedent  by  a  comma. 

If  we  wish  to  make  the  relative  refer  to  the  adjunct  nouns,  we  must  use 
that  instead  of  who  or  which.  Thus  we  might  say, '  The  Indians  construct- 
ed huts  covered  with  the  skins  of  wild  animals  that  they  killed  in  the 
chase. ' 

Use  of  Relatives. 

267.  Who  relates  to  persons  only;  which  relates  to  the 
lower  animals  and  to  things  without  life.     The  relative  that 
may  be  substituted  for  either  who  or  which  in  certain  con- 
structions explained  in  the  following  paragraphs. 

268.  The  relative  that  must  be  used  to  introduce  clauses  in- 
tended to  restrict  the  meaning  of  the  noun  immediately  preced- 
ing the  relative. 


100  SYNTAX. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1.  All  words  which  are  the  signs  of  complex  ideas  furnish 

matter  of  mistake. — Murray's  Grammar. 

EXPLANATION. — It  is  not  intended  in  this  sentence  to  say  all  words 
1  furnish  matter  of  mistake,'  but  only  such  words  as  are  '  signs  of  complex 
ideas.'  The  clause, 4  which  are  signs  of  complex  ideas,'  restricts  or  limits 
the  meaning  of  '  all  words,'  and  hence  the  relative  that  should  be  used. 

2.  Words,  which  are  signs  of  ideas,  may  be  divided  into 

nine  Parts  of  Speech. 

EXPLANATION. — Compare  this  with  the  first  sentence.  You  will  see 
that  in  the  second  sentence  the  relative  is  not  restrictive,  but  explanatory. 
The  sentence  means  '  all  words  (and  these  are  signs  of  ideas)  may  be  divi- 
ded,' etc.  The  sentence  is  therefore  correct. 

269.  Hence  the  rule  :  Introduce  restrictive  clauses  by '  that/ 
explanatory  clauses  by  'who'  or  'which/ 

1.  'A  spirit  more  amiable,  but  less  vigorous  than  Luther's, 

would  have  shrunk  back  .frgrn  the  dangers  that  he 
braved  and  surmounted.' 

EXPLANATION. — The  relative  'that'  is  correctly  used  to  introduce  the 
clause  'he  braved  and  surmounted,'  because  it  is  not  dangers  in  general 
that  are  spoken  of,  but  the  particular  dangers  '  that  he  braved  and  sur- 
mounted.' 

2.  Age,  that  lessens  the  enjoyment  of  life,  increases  our 

desire  of  living. —  Goldsmith. 

EXPLANATION. — Here  that  is  incorrectly  used  instead  of  which:  the 
clause  '  which  lessens  the  enjoyment  of  life'  is  not  restrictive,  but  is  explan- 
atory; hence  '  age,  which  lessens,'  etc. 

Particular  Applications  of  the  Rule. 

270.  The  following  sentences  are  particular  exemplifica- 
tions of  the  general  principle  stated  above  : 

(1.)  This  is  the  best  book  that  I  know  of — clause  restrictive  of  superlative 

degree. 
(2.)  This  is  the  same  book  that  I  bought — restrictive  clause  following  the 

adjective  same. 
(3.)  All  that  he  has ;  Any  man  that  says  so ;  Some  people  that  were  there 

— clauses  restrictive  of  the  demonstratives  a//,  any,  some. 

'  That'  having  mixed  antecedents. 

271.  The  relative  that  is  used  when  the  Pronoun  has  two 
antecedents,  one  denoting  persons,  the  other  animals  or  things; 
as,  The  man  and  the  dog  that  we  saw.     The  reason  of  this  is 
that  neither  who  nor  which  could  properly  be  used. 


PRACTICAL   SYNTAX    OF   THE    PRONOUN.  101 

4  Which'  having  a  Collective  Noun  for  its  antecedents. 

272.  Which,  and  not  who,  is  used  when  the  antecedent  is  a 
collective  noun  expressing  unity  of  idea ;  as,  The  party  which 
he  entertained  yesterday  was  very  numerous. 

1  Whose.' 

273.  Whose,  properly  the  Possessive  of  icho,  is  often  used, 
especially  in  poetry,  as  the  possessive  of  which,  the  latter 
having  no  possessive  of  its  own. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

That  undiscovered  country 

From  whose  bourne  no  traveler  returns. — Shakspeare. 
The  poor  banished  insects  whose  intent, 
Though  they  did  ill,  was  innocent. — Shelley. 

Mixing  Relatives. 

274.  When  you  have  used  which  to  introduce  one  relative 
clause,  be  careful  not  to  use  that  to  introduce  another  clause 
of  the  same  kind  in  the  same  sentence. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

It  is  remarkable  that  Holland,  against  which  the  war  was 
undertaken,  and  that,  in  the  very  beginning,  was  re- 
duced to  the  brink  of  destruction,  lost  nothing. 
EXPLANATION. — Here  the  relative  which  in  the  first  clause  should  not 
have  been  changed  into  that  in  the  second  clause. 

Which  and  That. 

275.  On  account  of  euphony,  that,  whenever  it  can  be  used, 
is  preferable  to  which. 

That  with  Prepositions. 

276.  The  relative  that  can  not  be  preceded  by  its  govern- 
ing preposition ;  that  preposition  must  be  thrown  to  the  end 
of  the  clause ;  as,  The  steam-boat  that  I  went  up  the  river  in 
was  sunk. 

Whom  and  Which  with  Prepositions. 

277.  The  Prepositions  governing  whom  and  which  may 
also  be  thrown  to  the  end  of  the  clause,  but  modern  usage 
prefers  placing  them  immediately  before  the  relatives. 

ILLUSTRATION. — Thus  it  is  deemed  more  elegant  to  say  '  The  steamer  in 
which  I  went  up  the  river'  than  '  The  steamer  which  I  went  up  the  river  in.1 


102  SYNTAX. 

An  Idiomatic  Construction, 

278.  In  many  cases  a  much  more  vigorous  and  effective 
statement  is  made  by  introducing  a  clause  by  that  and  fol- 
lowing it  by  its  governing  preposition,  than  by  introducing 
it  by  which  or  whom,  preceded  by  its  governing  preposition. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1.  He  is  the  stranger  of  whom  you  told  me^He  is  the 

stranger  that  you  told  me  of. 

2.  The  musquito  is  good  for  nothing  that  I  know  of,  is 

much  less  pompous  than  The  musquito  is  good  for 
nothing  of  which  I  know. 

3.  There   are  many  words  which  are   adjectives  which 

have  nothing  to  do  with  the  qualities  of  the  nouns 
to  which  they  are  put. —  Cobbettfs  Grammar. 

This  sentence  would  read  better  thus :  There  are  many  words  that  are 
adjectives  which  have  nothing  to  do  with  the  qualities  of  the  nouns  that 
they  are  put  to. 

279.  Change  the  turn  of  expression  in  the  following :  1.  The 
subject,  of  which  I  had  occasion  to  speak,  is  a  most  important 
one.     2.  He  sold  me  the  house  of  which  you  have  heard.     3. 
It  is  the  strangest  story  of  which  I  ever  heard.    4.  There  was 
nothing  upon  which  a  beetle  could  have  lunched. 

4  As'— a  Kelative. 

280.  The  word  as  is  used  as  a  relative  when  the  anteced- 
ent is  such,  some,  and  so  much. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1.  I  wish  all  men  in  the  world  did  heartily  believe  so  much 

of  this  as  is  true.— Jeremy  Taylor. 

2.  Avoid  such  companions  as  those  are. 

3.  We  are  such  stuff  as  dreams  are  made  of. — ShaJcspeare. 
Here  as  is  a  relative  governed  by  the  preposition  of  at  the  end  of  the 

clause. 

4.  He  is,  as  I  have  said,  a  great  lover  of  books. 

EXPLANATION. — Here  as  is  the  object  of 'said;'  it  represents  the  state- 
ment, *  He  is  a  great  lover  of  books.'  The  sentence  is  equivalent  to  this : 
He  is  a  great  lover  of  books,  and  I  have  said  this  before. 

Ellipsis  of  the  Relative. 

281.  In  conversational  style  the  relatives  are  often  omitted. 


PRACTICAL    SYNTAX    OF   THE    PRONOUN.  103 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1.  The  family  I  lived  with  has  removed.     Here  the  relative  that  is  under- 

stood. 

2.  I  have  sent  you  every  thing  [that]  you  ordered. 

3.  He  can  not  tell  all  [that]  he  knows. 

4.  I  have  no  money  [that  is]  worth  talking  about. 

5.  Men  must  reap  the  things  [that]  they  sow. — Shelley. 

6.  There  is  a  willow  [that]  grows  askant  the  bank. — Shakspeare. 

7.  I  may  do  that  which  I  shall  be  sorry  for. — Shakspeare. 

8.  I  am  monarch  of  all  [that]  I  survey. — Cowper. 

9.  In  this  'tis  God  [who]  directs,  in  that  'tis  man. — Pope. 
10.  [He]  who  steals  my  purse,  steals  trash. — Shakspeare. 

Misused  Relatives. 

282.  The  following  sentences  illustrate  two  incorrect  uses 
of  the  relatives. 

1.  Be  diligent;  without  which  you  can  never  succeed. 
EXPLANATION. — In  this  sentence  the  only  antecedent  that  the  relative 

which  can  refer  to  is  the  adjective  '  diligent ;'  but  from  its  very  nature  a 
relative  can  represent  only  a  noun,  or  some  expression  equivalent  to  a  noun. 
The  way  of  dealing  with  this  kind  of  sentence  is  to  use,  in  place  of  the 
relative,  an  abstract  noun  expressing  the  quality  implied  in  the  adjective. 
Thus  the  adjective  '  diligent'  implies  the  noun  '  diligence. '  The  sentence 
corrected  stands  thus :  Be  diligent ;  for  without  diligence  you  can  not  suc- 
ceed. 

2.  And  do  you  now  strew  flowers  in  his  way, 
That  conies  in  triumph  over  Pompey's  blood  ? 

Shakspeare. 

EXPLANATION. — Here  'that'  has  for  its  antecedent  the  possessive  pro- 
noun his ;  but  'his'  is  in  reality  an  adjective,  and  is  a  mere  adjunct  of  the 
noun  'way.'  Hence  it  can  not  be  made  the  antecedent  of  the  relative  that. 

The  mode  of  dealing  with  this  case  is  to  change  the  adjective  (or  posses- 
sive) pronoun  into  a  real  pronoun ;  thus,'  flowers  in  the  way  of  him,  etc. 

Important  General  Caution. 

283.  When  in  a  sentence  there  is  the  slightest  ambiguity  or 
obscurity  in  the  reference  of  a  pronoun  to  its  noun  (whether  of 
the  relative  to  its  antecedent,  or  of  the  personal  pronoun  to  its 
represented  noun),  do  not  hesitate  to  repeat  the  noun  itself  in 
place  of  using  a  pronoun. 

NOTE. — The  best  modern  writers  pay  no  attention  to  the  old  maxim 
against  repeating  a  word.  Every  thing  must  give  way  to  perspicuity. 

284.  The  following  sentence  exemplifies  the  principle  stated 
in  the  general  caution : 

He  [Philip]  wrote  to  that  distinguished  philosopher  [Aris- 
totle] in  terms  the  most  polite  and  flattering,  begging 


104  SYNTAX. 

of  him  [Aristotle]  to  undertake  his  [Alexander's]  edu- 
cation, and  to  bestow  upon  him  [Alexander]  those  use- 
ful lessons  which  his  [Philip's]  numerous  avocations 
would  not  allow  him  [Philip]  to  bestow. —  Goldsmith. 
EXPLANATION. — This  sentence  may  be  corrected  thus  :   ' Philip  wrote 
to  Aristotle  in  terms  the  most  polite  and  flattering,  begging  of  that  distin- 
guished philosopher  to  undertake  A lexander's  education,  and  to  bestow  upon 
his  son  those  useful  lessons  that  his  own  numerous  avocations  would  not 
allow  him  to  bestow.' 

4.  Syntax  of  Adjectives. 
I.  How  TO  PARSE  ADJECTIVES. 

285.  There  are  but  two  uses  of  the  Adjective: 

1.  It  may  describe  or  limit  a  noun  to  which  it  belongs. 

2.  It  may  be  predicate  adjective  after  a  neuter  verb,  and 

in  this  case  it  describes  or  limits  the  subject  of  the 
verb. 

Adjective  with  a  Noun. 

286.  An  Adjective  belonging  to  a  noun  is  parsed  by  say- 
ing— 

.It  describes  (or  limits)  the  Noun  [naming  if]. 

MODEL. — O  tenderly  the  haughty  day 
Fills  his  blue  urn  with  fire. 

Haughty an  adjective,  describes  the  noun  day. 

Blue an  adjective,  describes  the  noun  urn. 

Predicate  Adjectives. 

287.  A  Predicate  Adjective  is  disposed  of  by  saying — 

It  is  Predicate  Adjective  after  the  Verb  [naming  if],  and 
describes  the  Subject  [naming  if]. 
MODEL. — Oak  is  tough. 

'Tough'  is  predicate  adjective  after  the  neuter  verb  'is,'  and  describes 
'oak.' 

The  rose  smells  sweet. 

1  Sweet'  is  predicate  adjective  after  the  neuter  verb  '  smells, '  and  de- 
scribes 'rose.' 

Exercise  35. 
Dispose  of  the  ADJECTIVES. 

1.  Around  the  fire  one  wintry  night 
The  farmer's  rosy  children  sat. 

2.  The  stately  homes  of  England, 
.     How  beautiful  they  stand. 


PRACTICAL   SYNTAX    OF   THE A±>J«CTIMK  'T  105 

3.  These  forms  are  very  elegant.  l(  U  ] 

4.  Were  never  folks  so  glad. 

5.  Now  the  bright  morning  star,  day's  harbing 

East. 

6.  Cloves  smell  aromatic. 

II.  PRACTICAL  SYNTAX  OP  THE  ADJECTIVE. 
The  Degrees. 

288.  The  Comparative  Degree  is  to  be  used  in  reference  only 
to  two  objects.    The  Superlative  Degree  is  to  be  used  only 
when  comparing  more  than  two  objects. 

EXAMPLES. — He  is  the  stronger  of  the  two — not  the  strong- 
est. He  is  the  strongest  of  the  three — not  the  stronger  of  the 
three. 

289.  When  a  person  or  a  thing  is  compared  with  others  be- 
longing to  the  same  class,  the  Adjective  in  the  Comparative 
Degree  must  be  followed  by  some  phrase  that  will  exclude  the 
thing  compared;  such  as/ than  any  other/  'than  all  others/ 

ILLUSTRATION. 

Bismarck  is  greater  than  any  German  statesman. 

EXAMPLE. — This  would  be  incorrect,  because,  as  Bismarck  is  himself  a 
German  statesman,  the  sentence  would  affirm  that  he  is  greater  than  him- 
self. It  should  read, 

1  Bismarck  is  greater  than  any  other  [or  than  all  other]  German 

statesmen.' 

The  phrase  than  any  other  excludes  Bismarck  from  the  class  with  which 
he  is  compared.  We  can  properly  say,  Bismarck  is  greater  than  any 
Chinese  statesman,  because  Bismarck,  being  a  German,  does  not  belong  to 
the  class  of  Chinese  statesmen. 

290.  When  one  person  or  thing  is  compared  with  all  others 
of  the  same  class,  the  adjecrtive  in  the  superlative  degree  must 
be  used. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

'Bismarck  is  the  greatest  of  German  statesmen,'  or  'Bis- 
marck is  the  greatest  German  statesman.' 

291.  Why  is  it  incorrect  to  speak  of  Paul  Pry  as' the  most 
inquisitive  of  his  contemporaries  T    Why  islVliltou  correct  in 
calling  J&VQ  fairest  of  her  daughters? 

292.  In  speaking  of  two   sets  of  objects, '  the  two  first' 
means  the  first  of  each  series.     In  speaking  of  one  set  of  ob- 

E  3 


106  SYNTAX. 

jects,  'the  first  two'  denotes  the  first  and  second  of  the  same. 
Hence  such  errors  as  the  following  should  be  avoided :  '  The 
clergyman  read  the  two  first  stanzas  of  the  hymn.? 

Special  Adjectives. 

This  and  That.  The  demonstrative  adjectives  'this'  and 
'that'  must  be  used  only  with  singular  nouns;  'these'  and 
'those'  with  plural  nouns. 

'  NOTE. — Never  use  the  personal  pronoun  them  for  the  adjective  those ; 
that  is,  never  say  'them  books'  for  ''those  books.' 

Either  and  Neither.  '  Either'  and  '  neither'  properly  apply 
to  one  of  two  objects — not  more  than  two.  Would  it  be  cor- 
rect to  say  '  John,  James,  and  Henry  are  faithful  boys ;  either 
lad  will  carry  the  message?' 

Such.  The  adjective  '  such'  is  often  improperly  used  for  the 
adverb  '  so.'  '  She  is  such  an  extravagant  woman'  should  be 
'  she  was  so  extravagant  a  woman.' 

Like.  The  adjective  like  is  sometimes  improperly  used  for 
as.  Victory  must  end  in  possession  'like  toil  in  sleep. —  Glad- 
stone. This  should  be, '  Victory  must  end  in  possession,  as 
(does)  toil  in  sleep.' 

Special  Prepositions. 

293.  Many  adjectives  require  to  be  followed  by  a  certain 
preposition  ;  as, '  different  from?  '  agreeable  to?  '  illustrative 
o/,' '  preferable  to? 

Use  of  the  Articles. 

294.  In  the  use  of  the  articles  there  are  several  important 
points  illustrated  by  the  following  examples : 

1.  We  saw  a  red,  white,  and  blue  flag. 

EXPLANATION. — This  means,  we  saw  one  flag  having  the  three  colors 
red,  white,  and  blue.  In  such  cases  the  rule  is,  when  several  adjectives 
are  used  to  limit  a  noun  representing  only  one  object,  the  article  is  used 
before  only  the  first  adjective. 

2.  We  saw  a  red,  a  white,  and  a  blue  flag. 
EXPLANATION. — This  means  that  we  saw  three  different  flags.     In  such 

cases  the  rule  is,  when  the  adjectives  apply  to  different  objects,  repeat  the 
article  before  every  adjective. 

3.  It  is  difficult,  in  some  cases,  to  distinguish  between  an 

interrogative  and  exclamatory  sentence. — Murray's 
Grammar. 


PEACTICAL   SYNTAX    OF   THE    ADJECTIVE.  107 

EXPLANATION. — The  great  grammarian  should  have  written  'an  inter- 
rogative and  an  exclamatory  sentence, '  because  two  kinds  of  sentences  are 
meant. 

4.  There  is  about  the  whole  book  a  vehement,  contentious, 

replying  manner. — Macaulay. 

EXPLANATION. — This  sentence  is  correct.  It  is  here  not  necessary  to 
repeat  the  a,  because  it  is  one  manner  that  is  spoken  of — a  manner  vehe- 
ment, contentious,  and  replying. 

5.  Both  a  noun  and  pronoun  may  be  the  subject  of  a  verb. 
Either  a  noun  or  pronoun  is  the  subject  of  a  verb. 

EXPLANATION. — These  sentences  are  incorrect.  The  article  should  be 
inserted  in  each  instance  before  the  second  of  the  two  nouns  joined  in  con- 
struction :  both  a  noun  and  a  pronoun ;  either  a  noun  or  a  pronoun.  The 
principle  in  such  cases  is,  that  when  there  is  a  close  connection  between 
two  nouns,  indicated  by  the  correlatives  either — or,  neither — nor,  both — 
and,  the  article  must  be  repeated.  The  same  principle  applies  when  the 
introducing  correlative  both,  either,  neither,  is  understood. 

6.  A  man,  woman,  and  infant  were  riding  in  the  cars. 

EXPLANATION. — This  sentence  is  incorrect.  The  article  a  may  be  un- 
derstood before  the  second  noun,  woman,  but  when  we  come  to  supply  it 
before  the  third  («  infant)  it  is  not  in  the  proper  form.  The  principle  is, 
that  in  a  string  of  nouns,  the  article  a  need  not  be  repeated  after  the 
first ;  but  if,  in  a  succession  of  nouns,  one  noun  requires  a  and  another  an, 
no  ellipsis  is  allowed. 

7.  An  adjective  or  participle  must  belong  to  some  noun 

or  pronoun. — Browrfs  Grammar. 

EXPLANATION. — This  comes  under  the  condemnation  of  the  principle  in 
6.  Supplying  the  ellipsis,  we  have  'an  adjective  and  an  participle.'  It 
should  be  '  an  adjective  or  a  participle. '  A  simple  way  of  turning  such 
sentences  is  to  use  the  plural  form  of  the  nouns,  and  to  employ  and  in  place 
of  or.  Thus, 'Adjectives  and  participles  must  belong  to  some  noun  or  to 
some  pronoun.' 

8.  The  variation  or  deviation  of  the  compass  was  first  ob- 

served by  Columbus. 

EXPLANATION. — This  sentence  seems  to  violate  the  principle  stated  in  6, 
but  it  is  strictly  correct.  '  Deviation'  is  used  to  explain  '  variation,-'  and  is 
synonymous  with  it,  and  hence  it  is  not  necessary  to  repeat  the  article. 
When  the  conjunction  or  connects  two  nouns,  the  second  of  which  is  only 
explanatory  of  the  first,  the  article  must  not  be  repeated. 

NOTE. — Mr.  Moon  (Bad  English,  p.  31)  takes  Lindley  Murray  to  task 
for  using  the  expression  '  an  oration  or  discourse. '  Moon's  objection  is 
that  if  the  ellipsis  were  supplied  the  expression  would  read  '  An  oration  or 
[an]  discourse.'  But  there  is  really  no  ellipsis  to  be  supplied,  since,  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  above  principle,  the  article  is  not  to  be  repeated,  the  sec- 
ond noun  being  explanatory  of  the  first. 

^°  When  two  nouns  are  thus  connected  in  an  explanatory  way,  be  care- 
ful 40  put  a  comma  after  the  first. 


108  SYNTAX. 

9.  He  is  a  better  statesman  than  soldier. 

EXPLANATION. — In  sentences  like  this  —  sentences  in  which  the  two 
nouns  denote  the  same  person,  the  article  is  not  repeated  before  the  noun 
following  than  or  as.  Repeating  the  article  before  soldier  will  entirety 
change  the  meaning  of  the  sentence.  4A  lawyer  may  be  as  good  a  man 
as  a  clergyman.'  Here  the  article  is  repeated  because  the  comparison  is 
made  between  two  different  persons. 

Exercise  36. 
Correct  the  Mistakes  in  the  use  of  the  ARTICLE. 

1.  The  importance  of  obtaining  in  early  life  a  clear,  distinct,  and  (    )  ac- 

curate knowledge. — Murray's  Grammar. 

2.  The  oral  or  (    )  written  forms  of  a  language. — Marsh. 

3.  An  adjective  in  the  comparative  or  (    )  superlative  degree  must  pre- 

cede an  adjective  modified  by  more  or  most. — Quackenbos's  Gram- 
mar. 

4.  The  dash  is  mostly  used  to  denote  an  unexpected  or  (    )  emphatic 

pause  of  variable  length. — Browns  Institutes. 

5.  No  figures  will  render  a  cold  or  (    )  empty  composition  interesting. — 

Blair. 

6.  When  an  adverb  qualifies  an  adjective  (aw?)  participle,  or  infinitive,  it 

is  generally  placed  before  it. 

7.  The  object  of  a  transitive  verb  is  a  noun  or  a  pronoun  which  denotes 

the  person  or  thing  that  the  agent  or  doer  acts  upon  or  controls. — 
Weld's  Grammar. 

8.  A  noun  or  (    )  pronoun,  used  as  the  predicate  of  a  proposition,  is  in 

the  nominative  case. — Harvey's  Grammar. 

9.  Specifying  adjectives  should  be  so  used  as  clearly  to  signify  the  real  in- 

tention of  the  speaker  or  (     )  writer. — Clark's  Grammar. 

10.  An  adjective  or  [an  ?~\  participle  qualifies  the  substantive  to  which  it 

belongs. — Bullion's  Grammar. 

1 1 .  And  since  it  is  not  always  easy  to  make  a  new  and  [a  f]  acceptable 

proper  name,  etc. — Kerl's  Grammar. 

12.  The  liberty  of  capitalizing  is  carried  to  a  great  and  [a  ?~\  almost  indefi- 

nite extent. — Kerfs  Grammar. 

5.  Syntax  of  the  Adverb. 
I.  How  TO  PARSE  ADVERBS. 

295.  The  Adverb  has  but  one  function  in  a  sentence — it  de- 
scribes a  verb,  an  adjective,  or  another  adverb. 

296.  Hence  an  adverb  is  disposed  of  by  saying — 

It  describes  the  Verb,  Adjective,  or  Adverb  [naming  it]. 

MODEL.  —  The  very  fairest  flowers  usually  wither  most 

quickly. 
Very an  adverb,  describes  the  adjective  fairest. 


PRACTICAL  SYNTAX  OF  THE  ADVERB.          109 

Usually. . .  .an  adverb,  describes  the  verb  wither. 

Most an  adverb,  describes  the  adverb  quickly. 

NOTE. — Sometimes  an  adverb  seems  to  be  independent,  but  there  is  gen- 
erally an  ellipsis,  which,  if  supplied,  will  show  some  word  that  the  adverb 
may  modify.  EXAMPLE  :  4  There  is  none  that  is  righteous.  No,  [there  is] 
not  one. '  '  Do  you  like  poetry  ?'  [I  like  it]  Very  much. 

Exercise  37. 
Dispose  of  the  following  ADVERBS  : 

1.  Slowly  and  sadly  we  laid  him  down. 

2.  And  now  a  bubble  bursts,  and  now  a  world. 

3.  For  them  no  more  the  blazing  hearth  shall  burn. 

4.  The  enemy  was  completely  in  my  power. 

5.  Nothing  is  too  gross  or  too  refined,  too  cruel  or  too  trifling,  to  be  prac- 

ticed. 

II.  PRACTICAL  SYNTAX  OF  THE  ADVERB. 

297.  Adverbs  and  adverbial  phrases  should  be  so  placed 
with  reference  to  the  words  they  are  intended  to  modify  as 
to  bring  out  the  meaning  clearly  and  to  round  the  sentence 
agreeably.    Hence  the  following — 

298.  GENERAL  RULE  OF  POSITION.— An  Adverb  should  be 
placed  in  close  proximity  to  the  word  or  the  words  that  it  mod- 
ifies. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

©iT  The  proper  placing  of  adverbs  is  a  matter  of  nice  taste  and  of  keen 
judgment.  The  art  will  best  be  learnt,  not  by  studying  rules  that  are  sub- 
ject to  numberless  exceptions,  but  by  dealing  with  actual  examples. 

1 .  We  can  not  deprive  them  of  merit  wholly. 
EXPLANATION. — The  adverb  i  wholly'  is  inelegantly  placed.    It  is  meant 

to  relate  to  the  verb  '  deprive,'  and  the  intervention  of  the  words  '  them  of 
merit'  between  the  adverb  and  the  verb  is  very  clumsy.  It  should  be,  We 
can  not  wholly  deprive  them  of  merit. 

2.  I  hope  not  much  to  tire  those  I  shall  not  happen  to 

please. — Doctor  Johnson. 

EXPLANATION. — Doctor  Johnson  did  not  mean  to  say  that  he  did  not 
•..  much  hope  to  tire,  but  that  he  hoped  not  to  tire  much.    The  sentence  should 
be  turned  in  this  manner :   '  I  hope  I  shall  not  much  tire  those  whom  I 
shall  [or  may]  not  happen  to  please. ' 

3.  This  mode  of  expression  rather  suits  familiar  than  grave 

style. — Murray's  Grammar. 

EXPLANATION. — As  the  comparison  is  not  intended  to  be  between  suiting 
and  not  suiting,  but  between  suiting  one  kind  of  style  (namely,  *  a  familiar') 
in  preference  to  another,  the  adverb  of  comparison  should  be  placed,  not 


110  SYNTAX. 

before  the  verb  l  suit,'  which  it  is  not  meant  to  qualify,  but  before  the  ad- 
jective *  familiar, '  to  which  it  is  intended  to  relate.  Making  this  altera- 
tion, the  sentence  becomes,  'This  mode  of  expression  suits  rather  familiar 
than  grave  style.'  But  the  sentence  is  still  faulty.  A  particular  kind  of 
style,  and  not  style  in  general,  is  spoken  of ;  hence  the  indefinite  article 
should  be  used.  Fully  corrected,  the  sentence  reads,  '  This  mode  of  ex- 
pression suits  rather  a  familiar  than  a  grave  style.' 

4.  The  colon  may  be  properly  applied  in  the  following 

cases. — Murray's  Grammar. 

EXPLANATION. — The  writer  did  not  mean  that  the  colon  may  be  ap- 
plied in  a  proper  manner,  but  that  it  is  proper  to  apply  the  colon ;  hence  it 
should  be, i  may  properly  be  applied,'  etc. 

5.  It  is  a  frequent  and  capital  error  in  the  writings  even 

of  some  distinguished  authors. — Murray  }s  Grammar. 

EXPLANATION. — The  position  of '  even'  confuses  the  sense  by  suggesting 

a  qualification  of '  writings. '     'Even'  should  be  carried  to  the  other  side 

of  the  preposition ;  the  sentence  will  then  read  thus :  '  in  the  writings  of 

even  some  distinguished  authors.' 

6.  A  master-mind  was  equally  wanting  in  the  cabinet  and 

in  the  field. 

EXPLANATION. — This  should  be,  'Was  wanting  equally  in  the  cabinet,' 
etc.  Take  notice  that  in  this  example,  as  in  Illustration  3,  the  adverb  has 
a  mixed  reference.  l  Equally'  modifies  wanting,  but  it  has  reference  also 
to  the  phrase  '  in  the  cabinet  and  in  the  field.'  The  principle  in  such  cases 
is,  that  the  adverb  should  be  placed  between  the  two  words  or  expres- 
sions to  which  it  has  reference. 

7.  I  have  been  disappointed  greatly  at  your  conduct. 
EXPLANATION. — You  see  that  the  adverb  greatly  is  very  clumsily  placed. 

The  sentence  should  run  thus :  '  I  have  been  greatly  disappointed, '  etc.  The 
principle  in  such  cases  is,  that  in  compound  tenses  adverhs  should  be  in- 
serted between  the  auxiliary  and  the  participle. 

8.  He  used  to  often  come. 
I  wished  to  really  know. 

EXPLANATION. — With  the  infinitive  simple  tense,  the  adverb  must  never 
separate  the  sign  to  from  the  verb ;  it  must  either  precede  or  it  must  fol- 
low the  whole  infinitive  form.  Thus, '  He  used  often  to  come,'  or  '  to  come 
often.9  '  I  wished  really  to  know,'  or  '  to  know  really. '  With  the  infinitive 
compound  tenses,  of  course,  the  same  rule  prevails  as  in  other  compound 
tenses.  We  say,  ' It  is  believed  to  have  often  happened ;'  'He  is  thought 
to  be  well  informed  on  that  subject.'  In  these  examples  the  preposition  to 
is  not  severed  From  its  infinitive. 

299.  The  varieties  of  position  and  of  reference  in  the  ad- 
verb are  seen  in  the  following  examples : 

1.  Sometimes  she  sings. ...  (at  other  times  she  reads). 

2.  She  sometimes  sings.  . . .  (at  other  times  he  sings). 

3.  She  sings  sometimes.  . . .  (but  not  frequently). 


PRACTICAL  SYNTAX  OF  THE  ADVERB.          Ill 

That  Troublesome  'Only.* 

300.  The  most  troublesome  of  all  our  English  adverbs  is 
the  word  '  only.' 

"  A  blunder  of  which  the  instances  are  innumerable  is  the  misplacing 
of  the  word  'only.'  Indeed,  this  is  so  common,  so  absolutely  universal, 
one  may  almost  say,  that  '  only'  can  not  be  found  in  its  proper  place  in  any 
book  within  the  whole  range  of  English  literature. " — Gould's  Good  En- 
glish, p.  100. 

301.  According  to  the  position  of  '  only?  the  very  same 
word  may  be  made  to  express  several  very  different  mean- 
ings.    The  following  examples  will  illustrate  this : 

1.  ''Only  he  mourned  for  his  brother.'     Only  here  expresses  an  antithet- 

ical relation  equivalent  to  'but.'  He  was  generally  a  cold-hearted 
man,  only  (but,  as  an  exception  to  his  general  character)  he  mourned 
for  his  brother. 

2.  'He-ow/y  (alone)  mourned  for  his  brother.'    No  one  else  mourned  for 

him. 

3.  '  He  on/y-mourned  for  his  brother. '  He  did  nothing  else. 

4.  '  He  mourned  only  for  his  brother.'  And  for  no  other  reason. 

5.  '  He  mourned  for  his  only  brother. '  His  single  brother ;  only,  an  adjec- 

tive. 

6.  'He  mourned  for  his  brother  only'  (alone) — and  for  no  one  else. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1.  A  term  which  only  implies  the  idea  of  persons. 

EXPLANATION. — The  force  of  exclusion  possessed  by  the  'only'  is  not 
meant  to  apply  to  the  word  '  implies,'  but  to  the  word  '  persons.'  It  should 
be  '  which  implies  the  idea  of  persons  only. ' 

2.  I  can  only  regard  them  as  Scotticisms. — Dean  Alford. 

EXPLANATION. — The  force  of  exclusion  in  the  'only'  is  not  meant  to 
apply  to  the  verb  'regard,'  but  to  the  noun  'Scotticisms.'  The  sentence 
should  be, 'I  can  regard  them  only  as  Scotticisms.' 

3.  When  the  article  stands  only  before  the  first  of  two  or 

more  connected  nouns. — J£erVs  Grammar. 
EXPLANATION. — This  should  be, '  When  the  article  stands  before  only 
the  first, 'etc. 

4.  The  negroes  are  to  appear  at  church  only  in  boots. 

EXPLANATION. — This  means  that  when  the  negroes  go  to  church  they 
are  to  have  no  clothing  but  boots. 

The  negroes  are  to  appear  only  at  church  in  boots. 

This  might  mean  that  they  are  not  to  appear  any  where  but  at  church, 
whether  in  boots  or  out  of  them.  The  proper  arrangement  would  be  to 
connect  'in  boots'  with  its  verb  'appear,'  and  make  'only'  qualify  'at 
church, '  and  no  more.  Thus, '  The  negroes  are  to  appear  in  boots  only  at 
church. ' 


112  SYNTAX. 

'Not  Only.' 

302.  The  same  difficulty  is  met  with  in  the  use  of  c  not 
only.'     The  following  sentences  will  serve  as  illustrations  : 

1.  By  greatness  I  not  only  mean  the  bulk  of  any  single 

•  object,  but  the  largeness  of  the  whole  view. 
This  should  read, '  By  greatness  I  mean  not  only  the  bulk,'  etc. 

2.  Thales  was  not  only  famous  for  his  knowledge  of  na- 

ture, but  for  his  moral  wisdom. — Enfield. 

This  sentence  should  read, '  Thales  was  famous  not  only  for  his  knowl- 
edge of  nature,  but  also  for  his  moral  wisdom.' 

Alone. 

303.  Alone,  when  used  adverbially,  should  be  placed  imme- 
diately after  the  verb  that  it  modifies.     As,  The  teacher  was 
sitting  alone  in  the  school-room. 

EXPLANATION. — In  this  sentence  the  meaning  is,  'The  teacher  was  sit- 
ting by  himself  in  the  school-room.'  If  we  said  *  the  teacher  alone  was  sit- 
ting in  the  school-room,'  we  should  convey  the  idea  that  nobody  else  was 
sitting  in  the  school-room.  Here  'alone'  is  an  adjective  limiting  '  teacher.' 
It  would  be  better  to  say  'only  the  teachtr,'  etc. 

Some  misused  Adverbs. 

304.  Where. . .  .This  Relative  Adverb  must  not  be  used  in 
introducing  clauses  unless  the  reference  is  to  literal  place. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1.  Franklin  lived  in  Philadelphia,  where  the  Declaration 

of  Independence  was  signed. 

EXPLANATION. — This  is  correct ;  but  we  can  not  properly  say, '  The 
Americans  addressed  the  king  in  a  petition  where  they  asked  for  the  lib- 
erties of  British  subjects.'  Here  'in  a  petition'  does  not  denote  literal 
place,  but  merely  place  figuratively,  and  in  all  such  cases  the  relative  phrase 
'  in  which'  must  be  used. 

2.  The  only  sentence  which  I  can  call  to  mind  where  the 

words  '  so — as'  are  proper  when  speaking  affirmative- 
ly, are  those  in  which  the  last  of  the  said  words  pre- 
cedes a  verb  in  the  Infinitive  Mood. — Moon's  Bad 
English,  p.  139. 

Mr.  Moon,  though  a  discriminating  critic,  is  guilty  of  '  bad  English'  in 
this  sentence.  Any  scholar  can  see  that  the  reference  made  by  the  relative 
adverb  where  is  to  the  noun  '  sentence,'  and,  therefore,  that  the  clause  should 
be  introduced  by  in  which.  Thus  'The  only  sentences  which  [better  that} 
I  can  call  to  mind  in  which  the  words, '  etc. 

305.  How. .  .  .  .This  Relative  Adverb  must  not  be  used  in 


PRACTICAL  SYNTAX  OF  THE  ADVEKB.          113 

introducing  clauses  unless  the  reference  is  to  literal  manner. 
Hence  it  can  relate  only  to  a  verb,  and  can  not  relate  to  a 
noun. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

I  do  not  know  how  it  may  be  done.    • 

EXPLANATION. — This  is  correct ;  but  we  can  not  properly  say,  I  know 
of  no  rule  how  it  may  be  done.  In  all  such  cases,  which,  with  its  appro- 
priate preposition,  must  be  used,  thus :  I  know  of  no  rule  by  which  it  may 
be  done. 

There  is  another  misuse  of  how  illustrated  by  the  following  sentence :  He 
said  how  he  intended  to  buy  a  horse.  Here  it  is  plain  that  the  proper  con- 
nective is  the  conjunction  that.  i  How  that'  and  '  as  how'  are  often  wrong- 
ly used  instead  of  that. 

306.  When This  Adverb  can  not  refer  to  a  specific 

noun;  it  relates  only  to  phrases,  to  clauses,  or  to  statements. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

The  time  is  approaching  [statement]  when  we  shall  be  free. 

EXPLANATION. — This  is  correct;  but  we  can  not  properly  say  'The  hour 
when  we  shall  be  free  is  approaching,'  because  in  the  latter  form  the  refer- 
ence is  to  the  specific  noun  'hour.'  In  all  such  cases,  which,  with  its  ap- 
propriate preposition,  must  be  used. 

307.  Whence— hence— thence.  The  preposition  'from'  is  fre- 
quently used  before  these  adverbs,  but  this  use  is  redundant, 
as   direction  from  is  implied  in  the   adverbs   themselves: 
whence  being  equal  to  from  where;  hence  = from  here ;  thence 
=from  there. 

308.  So A  common  misuse  of  this  adverb  is  illus- 
trated by  the  following  sentence:  I  will  answer  his  letter  so 
soon  as  I  receive  it. 

EXPLANATION. — The  proper  use  of  so  is  to  introduce  a  comparison  of 
inequality.  We  say  'John  is  not  so  brave  as  James.'  To  introduce  a 
comparison  of  equality,  we  use  as.  Thus,  John  is  as  strong  as  James. 
The  sentence  above  should  read,  I  will  answer  his  letter  as  soon  as  I  re- 
ceive it. 

'The  Rose  smells  sweet.' 

309.  In  sentences  like  the  above,  it  is  sometimes  difficult  to 
tell  whether  to  use  an  adjective  or  an  adverb.    The  principle 
is  this :  Neuter  verbs  can  not  be  limitecLby  adverbs;  any  qual- 
ifier immediately  following  the  verb  must  belong  to  the  sub- 
ject, and  consequently  must  be  an  adjective.    In  the  sentence 
'The  rose  smells  sweet,'  sweet  denotes  the  quality  of  the  rose. 
The  sentence  is  equal  to  '  the  rose  is  sweet.' 


114  SYNTAX. 

EXPLANATION. — We  say/ Mary  looks  cold'  [she  is  cold],  because  what 
we  wish  is,  not  to  mark  the  manner  of  looking,  but  to  denote  a  quality  of 
Mary.  If  we  change  the  neuter  verb  into  a  transitive  verb  by  the  addition 
of  a  preposition,  and  say, 'Mary  looks  on  John  coldly,'  the  expression  is 
correct,  because  in  this  instance  we  wish  to  denote  the  manner  of  her  look- 
ing-on,  and  not  a  quality  of  Mary. 

310.  Would  you  say  c  the  velvet  feels  smooth  ?' — or  feels — 
smoothly  ? 

Would  you  say  'gutturals  sound — harshly T  or  sound — 
harsh  f 

Would  you  say  <  the  dog  smells — disagreeably  ?'  or  '  smells 
— disagreeable  ?' 

Would  you  say  cshe  looks  finely  f  or  'looks—; fine?' 

Double  Negatives. 

311.  In  English,  two  negatives  are  equal  to  an  affirmative. 
Hence  you  should  be  careful,  when  you  mean  negation,  not  to 
introduce  two  negative  adverbs. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1.  I  have  not  done  nothing. 

This  means  'I  have  done  something.'  If  you  mean  a  negative,  say  ;I 
have  done  nothing,'  or  'I  have  not  done  any  thing.' 

2.  He  has  eaten  no  bread  nor  drunk  no  water  these  two 

days. 

EXPLANATION. — The  negative  in  nor  (=not  or),  together  with  the  word 
no  before  water,  makes  a  double  negative.  Correct  thus :  He  has  eaten  no 
bread  and  he  has  drunk  no  water ;  or,  He  has  neither  eaten  any  bread  nor 
has  he  drunk  any  water,  etc. 

312.  What  does  c  I  have  not  had  no  dinner'  mean  ? 

313.  But  double  negatives  are  elegantly  used  to  express 
an  affirmative  in  an  indirect  way.     In  place  of  saying,  I  am 
somewhat  acquainted  with  his  virtues,  the  sentence  might 
be  turned  thus :  I  am  not  imacquainted  with  his  virtues. 

The  principal  negative  prefixes  are  un,  dis,  and  in  (with  its  variant  forms 
il,  ig,  im,  ir,  etc). 

Distribution  of  Adverbs. 

314.  When  a  sentence  contains  a  number  of  adverbs  and 
of  adverbial  phrases,  they  should  be  appropriately  distributed 
in  the  sentence. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

Cromwell  called  a  council  of  his  chief  officers  secretly,  at 


SYNTAX    OF   THE   PREPOSITION.  115 

Windsor,  at  the  suggestion  oflreton,  to  deliberate  con- 
cerning the  settlement  of  the  nation. 

EXPLANATION. — Here  the  adverbs  and  adverbial  phrases  are  huddled  to- 
gether in  the  centre.  They  should  be  distributed  thus  :  A  t  the  suggestion 
of  Ireton,  Cromwell  secretly  called  a  council  of  his  chief  officers  at  Wind- 
sor to  deliberate  concerning  the  settlement  of  the  nation. 

Exercise  37. 

In  the  following  sentences,  see  in  how  many  different  posi- 
tions you  can  place  the  ADVEKBS,  and  tell  what  difference  the 
change  of  position  will  make  in  the  meaning  of  each  sentence. 

1.  We  use  to  see  them  very  frequently. 

2.  Sometimes  he  returns  home  very  late. 

3.  I  really  am  not  at  all  sorry. 

4.  We  may  probably  go  there  to-morrow. 

5.  When  I  called  at  your  house  yesterday  I  left  my  stick  behind  me. 

6.  They  set  off  early  this  morning  for  London. 

7.  We  all  dine  out  to-day. 

8.  He  acted  throughout  with  great  discretion. 

9.  The  winter  is  past ;  already  the  trees  and  herbs  begin  to  unfold  their 

tender  green. 

10.  At  last  he  opened  his  mouth  and  spoke. 

11.  He  resolved  immediately  to  make  an  apology. 

12.  I  went  immediately  to  his  assistance,  and  never  shall  I  forget  the  scene. 

6.  Syntax  of  Prepositions. 
I.  How  TO  PARSE  THE  PREPOSITION. 
315.  The  Preposition  is  very  easily  parsed.     All  you  have 
to  do  is  to  say — 

It  links  such  and  such  a  noun  or  pronoun  [naming  it]  to 
such  and  such  another  word  [naming  it]. 

MODEL. — Around  the  rugged  rocks  the  ragged  rascal  ran. 
Around. ...  .a  preposition,  linking  the  noun  rocks  to  the  verb  ran. 

Exercise  38. 
Dispose  of  the  PREPOSITIONS. 

1 .  The  smiling  daisies  blow  beneath  the  sun. 

2.  We  crossed  the  river  by  a  bridge  made  of  ropes. 

3.  They  sat  them  down  upon  the  yellow  sand. 

4.  We  visited  the  ruins  of  the  great  Thebes. 

5.  How  fresh  the  meadows  look  above  the  river. 

6.  The  mocking-bird  loses  little  of  its  energy  by  confinement. 

7.  The  deer  across  their  greensward  bound. 

8.  I  saw  a  wearied  man  dismount  from  his  hot  steed. 

9.  She  waited  underneath  the  dawning  hills. 

1 0.  The  noise  of  battle  rolled  among  the  mountains  by  the  winter  sea. 

11.  The  light  white  cloud  swam  over  us. 

12.  Her  tears  fell  with  the  dews  at  even. 


116  SYNTAX. 

II.  PRACTICAL  SYNTAX  OF  THE  PREPOSITION. 
Position  of  Prepositions. 

316.  The  usual  position  of  prepositions  (pre^  before,  and 
positio,  a  placing)  is  before  the  words  they  govern. 

317.  But  in  poetry  the  preposition  frequently  follows  the 
word  it  governs ;  as,  The  rattling  crags  among. — Byron. 

318.  The  Preposition  should  not  be  separated  by  an  interme- 
diate clause  from  the  word  it  governs.    '  Appears  Lausanne, 
with  at  its  feet  the  little  village  of  Ouchy/  should  be  '  with 
the  little  village,'  etc. 

Repetition  of  Prepositions. 

319.  When  the  introductory  correlative/ both/  '  either/  or 
'  neither/  is  followed  by  a  preposition,  that  preposition  must  be 
repeated  after  the  conjunctions  '  and/  '  or/  and '  nor'  in  the  suc- 
ceeding part  of  the  sentence. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1.  This,  in  philosophical  writing,  has  a  disagreeable  effect, 

both  upon  the  memory  and  upon  the  understanding 
of  the  reader. 

2.  Mary  is  neither  in  the  house  nor  in  the  garden. 

3.  We  shall  consider  each  of  these  three  objects  in  versi- 

fication both  with  respect  to  the  feet  and  the  pauses. 
— Murray's  Grammar. 

EXPLANATION. — This  should  be  'with  respect  both  to  the  feet  and  to 
the  pauses. ' 

4.  Performing  at  the  same  time  the  offices  both  of  the 

nominative  and  objective  cases. 

EXPLANATION. — This  should  be,  'performing  at  the  same  time  the  of- 
fices both  of  the  nominative  and  of  the  objective  case.'  The  article  'the' 
is  repeated  before  the  word  objective  in  accordance  with  ^  294  (2). 

5.  The  choice  of  prefixes  or  suffixes  is  determined  not 

merely  by  their  meaning, but,  etc. — IZerFs  Grammar. 

EXPLANATION. — Better,  The  choice  of  prefixes  or  of  suffixes,  etc.;  be- 
cause, when  the  correlative  both,  either,  or  neither,  is  plainly  implied,  the 
principle  given  above  holds  good. 

6.  That  is  applied  to  persons  as  well  as  [to]  things. 

EXPLANATION.  —  The  preposition  used  before  the  first  of  two  nouns 
joined  by  the  connection  as  well  as,  should  be  used  before  the  second  also. 


PRACTICAL   SYNTAX    OF   THE    PREPOSITION.  117 

'Between'  and  'Among.' 

320.  Between  literally  signifies  by  twain,  that  is,  by  two's. 
Hence  it  can  not  apply  to  more  than  two.    We  may  say 
mother  divided  the  apple  between  sister  and  me,  but  not  be- 
tween John,  James,  and  Martha.     The  preposition  among  or 
amongst  is  used  to  denote  distribution  applied  to  more  than 
two.     The  booty  was  divided  among  the  forty  thieves. 

Rhetoric  of  Prepositions. 

321.  A  statement  is  sometimes  made  effective  by  repeating 
the  preposition  before  each  one  of  a  string  of  words.     Thus, 
I  will  buy  with  you,  sell  with  you,  talk  with  you,  walk  with 
you ;  but  I  will  not  eat  with  you,  drink  with  you,  nor  pray 
with  you. — Shakspeare. 

Appropriate  Prepositions. 

322.  There  are  many  words  that  can  be  followed  by  but 
one  preposition ;  there  are  other  words  that  admit  different 
prepositions,  the  sense  greatly  varying  with  each.   Care  should 
be  taken  to  select  the  preposition  exactly  adapted  to  express  the 
relation  intended. 

1.  Making  sense  of  itself. — Murray's  Grammar.    Should 

be  by  itself. 

2.  In  respect  of  time. — Murray.     Should  be  With  respect 

to  time. 

3.  When  I  was  deliberating  to  what  new  qualifications  I 

should  aspire,  should  be,  When  I  was  deliberating 
with  regard  to  what  new,  etc. 

Ask  for. — If  he  ask  for  breadrwill  he  give  him  a  stone? — Bible. 
Ask  from. — We  ask  not  such  from  thee. — Hemans. 
Ask  of. — But  of  the  never-dying  soul  ask  things  that  can  not  die. 
Averse/row. — Because  my  nature  was  averse  from  life. — Byron. 
Averse  to. — Averse  to  all  innovation. 

Call  at  (a  house). — He  ordered  him  to  call  at  his  house. — Temple. 
Call  back  (retract). — Will  not  call  bofk  his  words. — Bible. 
Call  for  (demand,  claim). — His  majesty  doth  call  for  you. — Shakspeare. 
Call  in  (invite). — Call  in  the  powers,  good  cousin. — Shakspeare. 
Call  upon  (pray). — Call  upon  me  in  the  day  of  trouble. — Bible. 
Compare  to  (as  illustration). — He  compared  reason  to  the  sun,  and  fancy 

to  a  meteor. — Johnson. 

Compare  with  (in  quality). — Compare  their  condition  with  his  own. 
Concur  in  (opinion). — As  if  all  my  executors  had  concurred  in  the  same. — 

Swift. 
Concur  with  (a  person). — It  is  not  evil  simply  to  concur  with  the*heathens. 

— Hooker. 


118  SYNTAX. 

Consist  in  (contain). — Wit  consists  in  such  a  resemblance  and  congruity, 

etc. — Addison. 
Consist  o/(made  of).— The  land  would  consist  of  plains  and  valleys. — 

Burnett. 

Consist  with  (agree). — Health  consists  with  temperance  alone. — Pope. 
Contend  against  (an  obstacle). — Contend  against  thy  valor. — Shakspeare. 
Contend  with  (a  person). — Neither  contend  with  them. — Bible. 
Copy  after  (an  example). — Several  seemed  to  have  copied  after  it. 
Copy  from  (as  a  painter). — A  painter  copies  from  the  life. — Dry  den. 
Defend  (others)  from. — He  defends  them /row  danger. 
Defend  (ourselves)  against. — The  queen  is  able  to  defend  herself  against 

all  her  enemies. — Swift. 
Die  of  (disease). — She  died  of  scarlet  fever. 

Differ /ro?w  (in  quality). — Nor  how  the  hero  differs  from  the  brute. 
Differ  with  (in  opinion). — Those  who  differ  with  you  in  their  sentiments. 

— Addison. 

Disappointed  in  (what  is  had). — He  was  disappointed  in  his  friend. 
Disappointed  o/(what  is  not  had). — Than  to  be  disappointed  of  what'  we 

have  only  the  expectation. — Adam  Smith. 

Divide  amongst  or  among  (three  or  more).—  Divide  it  amongst  the  men. 
Divide  between  (two).— It  was  divided  between  her  heart  and  lips. 
Exception  from  (a  rule  or  law). 
Exception  to  (rule  or  law). — That  proud  exception  to  all  nature's  laws. — 

Pope. 
Indulge  in  (habitual). — We  indulge  ourselves  in  the  gratifications,  etc. — 

A  tterbury. 

Indulge  with  (occasional). 

Lean  against  (a  wall). — Leaning  against  a  pillar. — Peacham. 
Lean  on  (a  staff). — I  lean  no  more  on  superhuman  aid. — Byron. 
Lean  to  (an  opinion). — Leaning  to  either  side. —  Watts. 
Lean  to  (bias). — Leaned  to  virtue's  side. — Goldsmith. 
Listen  for  {expected  sound). — He  listened  for  the  traveler's  tread. 
Listen  to  {present  sound). — Listen  to  the  noise. — Dennis. 
Live  at  a  small  town ;  live  in  London ;   live  in  France.     My  father  lived 

at  Blenheim  then. — Southey. 
Live  at. — Who  live  at  home  at  ease. — Dorset. 
Live  in  (state). — He  lived  and  died  in  poverty. 
Live  upon  (food). — They  live  upon  other  animals. — Arbuthnot. 
Live  up  to  (rules). — Live  up  to  the  dictates  of  reason. — Addison. 
Live  with  (a  person). — Then  live  with  me. — Shakspeare. 
Look  at  (to  regard). — As  if  it  looked  at  something. — Sterne. 
Look  for  (what  is  lost  or  expected). — Looked  for  death  with  the  same  ex- 
pectation as  for  victory. — Southel/. 

Look  on  (see). — I'll  be  candle-holder,  and  look  on. — Shakspeare. 
Look  to  (guard). — Look  well  to  thy  herds. — Bible. 
Look  upon. — Look  not  upon  me  thus  reproachfully. — Byron. 
i     Look  up  to  (heaven). — Let  us  look  up  to  God. — Bacon. 
Prevail  on      } 

Prevail  upon  >  (persuade). — Prevail  upon  some  judicious  friend. — Swift. 
Prevail  with  ) 

Sink  beneath  (a  sword). — Worlds  must  sink  beneath  the  stroke. 
Sink  down  (penetrate,  faint). 


SYNTAX  OF  THE  CONJUNCTION.  119 

Sink  into  (into  the  sea  or  earth). — He  sinks  into  thy  depths. — Byron. 

Sink  under  (a  burden). — A  nation  sinking  under  its  debts. — Junius. 

Sink  upon  (ground,  bosom). — He  sank  upon  my  breast. — Hemans. 

Start  at  (dreadful  sight). — He  starts  at  sin. — Dryden. 

Start  from  (a  place). — Shall  start  from  every  wave. — Campbell. 

Start  with  (a  companion). 

Start  up  (spring). — Start  up  from  the  dead. — Pope. 

Strive  against  (  a  person  or  )  Private  pity  strove  with  public  hate. — Den- 

Strive  with       \     obstacle     )       ham. 

Strive  for  (an  object). — Pretenders  oft  for  empire  strive. — Dryden. 

Struggle  for  (an  object). 

Struggle  with  (a  person). 

Taste /or  (inclination). — A  taste  for  wit  and  sense. — Swift. 

Taste  of  (morsel,  flavor). — The  taste  of  it  was  like  wafers. 

Weary  in. — Weary  in  well-doing. 

Weary  of  (task,  duty). — Society  grown  weary  o/the  load. — Cowper. 

Weary  with. — Not  to  be  weary  with  you. — Shakspeare. 

Wait  at  (table). — Made  him  wait  at  table. — Swift. 

Wait/or  (an  expectation). — And  waited  for  his  prey. — Southey. 

Wait  on  (a  person). — I  will  wait  on  him. — Shakspeare. 

7.  Syntax  of  the  Conjunction. 
I.  How  TO  PAKSE  THE  CONJUNCTION. 

323.  Parse  the  Conjunction  by  saying  that — 

It  joins  the  statements  [naming  them}  hy  joining  such  and 
such  words  (verbs,  nouns),  etc.  {naming  them}. 

MODEL. — The  day  is  fine  and  the  sun  shines. 

And *...a  copulative  conjunction,  connects  the  two  statements  'the  day 

is  fine,'  '  the  sun  shines.' 

Wisdom  is  better  than  gold. 

Than a  conjunction,  connects  the  statement  'Wisdom  is  better'  with 

the  elliptical  statement  'gold  [is].' 

324.  In  disposing  of  the  correlative  conjunctions  'both — 
and,'  '  neither — nor,'  '  though — yet,'  *  as — as,'  '  so — that,'  say 
that  the  former  of  the  pair  serves  to  introduce  the  connection 
made  by  the  other. 

Exercise  39. 
Dispose  of  the  CONJUNCTIONS. 

1.  He  has  some  money,  but  you  have  non£ 

2.  'Twas  noon, 
And  Helon  knelt  beside  a  stagnant  pool 
In  the  lone  wilderness. 

3.  The  trees  have  lost  their  foliage  because  autumn  has  come. 

4.  Though  deep,  yet  clear ;  though  gentle,  yet  not  dull. 


120  SYNTAX. 

5.  The  boy  breathes  so  very  hard  that  we  find  it  impossible  to  sit. 

6.  Neither  the  horse  nor  the  carriage  was  injured. 

II.  PRACTICAL  SYNTAX  OF  THE  CONJUNCTION. 

NOTE. — The  Syntax  of  Conjunctions  has  been  treated  incidentally  in 
connection  with  other  parts  of  speech.  Conjunctions  have  very  little  syn- 
tax of  their  own.  They  indeed  exercise  an  important  influence  over  words 
associated  with  the  words  that  they  conjoin ;  but  this  influence  has  already 
been  considered  under  the  Verb,  the  Adjective,  etc.  The  following  are 
the  principal  points  relating  to  conjunctions  themselves  : 

'And/ or 'Or/ 

325.  The  Copulative  and  is  sometimes  wrongly  used  in 
place  of  the  Disjunctive  or.     Also,  or  is  often  misused  for 
and. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1.  It  is  obvious  that  a  language  like  the  Greek  and  Latin, 

etc. 

EXPLANATION. — Here  the  fit  conjunction  is.'  or.'  Moreover,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  principle  stated  in  1  294  (2),  the  definite  article  should  be  re- 
peated with  the  second  noun.  The  expression  correctly  written  stands 
thus :  It  is  obvious  that  a  language  like  the  Greek  or  the  Latin,  etc. 

2.  A  perfect  alphabet  of  the  English  language,  and,  in- 

deed, of  every  other  language,  would  contain  a  num- 
ber of  letters  precisely  equal  to  the  number  of  single 
articulate  words  belonging  to  the  language. — Mur- 
ray's Grammar. 

EXPLANATION. —  The  same  error  is  found  here.  The  author  should 
have  written,  A  perfect  alphabet  of  the  English  language,  or,  indeed,  of  any 
other  language,  would,  etc. 

3.  Adjectives  relate   to  nouns   or  pronouns.  —  Brown's 

Grammar. 

EXPLANATION. — The  conjunction  'and'  would  here  better  serve  to  make 
the  connection  intended  :  '  Relate  to  nouns  and  to  pronouns.' 

'Or*— its  double  use. 

326.  Remember  the  double  function  of  the  conjunction  or 
— its  use  in  joining  two  p^arts  of  an  alternative,  and  its  use  in 
uniting  synonyms.     Christ  or  John  the  Baptist = Christ,  or 
(what  is  another  person)  John  the  Baptist ;  Christ,  or  the 
Messiah^ Christ,  or  (what  is  the  same  person)  the  Messiah. 

In  the  language  of  law,  the  latter  use  of  or  is  expressed  by  alias;  as, 
Heenan,  alias  the  Benicia  Boy. 


PKACTICAL    SYNTAX    OF   THE    CONJUNCTION.  121 

1  Not— or'  and  '  Not— nor.7 

327.  When,  of  two  members  that  are  disjoined,  the  first  is 
a  negative,  the  contrast  may  be  mad^  either  by  or  or  by  nor. 
Thus,  The  king,  whose  character  was  not  sufficiently  vigor- 
ous, nor  [or  or]  decisive,  assented  to  the  measure. — Hume. 
The  nor  is  more  emphatic,  as  it  repeats  the  negative  of  the 
first  term. 

'So— that,' 

328.  In  constructions  requiring  that  as  the  correlative  of 
so,  be  careful  not  to  use  the  relative  pronoun  who  in  place  of 
the  conjunctions  '  that'  or  £as.' 

ILLUSTKATION. 

At  Bunker  Hill  there  was  no  one  so  sanguine  but  who 
feared  defeat. 

EXPLANATION. — 'Who'  can  not  play  the  part  of  a  correlative  to  'so.' 
Either  '  that'  or  '  as'  should  be  employed.  Thus, '  There  was  no  one  so 
sanguine  that  he  did  not  fear  defeat,'  or,  'no  one  so  sanguine  as  not  to 
fear  defeat.' 

'  Doubt,'  « but,'  or  ' that/ 

329.  The  verb  doubt  is  followed  by  either  that  or  but. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1.  I  can  not  doubt  that  I  have  contributed  something  to 

the  general  literature  of  my  country. — Hallam. 

2.  It  is  not  doubted  but  the  bishops  were  constituent 

members  of  this  council. — Hume. 
CAUTION. — Be  careful  not  to  follow  '  doubt'  by  '  but  that'  or  'but  what.' 

'As — as,'  'so — as.' 

330.  'As — as'  is  used  in  affirmative  comparison;  £  so — as'  in 
negative  comparison.     EXAMPLE  :  Mine  is  as  good  as  yours ; 
but  his  is  not  so  good  as  either. 

'And — and,'  'nor — nor.' 

331.  In  poetry, c  and — and'  is  often  used  for  'both — and;' 
4  nor — nor'  for  '  neither — nor.'     EXAMPLE  :  And  trump  and 
timbrel  answered  keen.  —  Scott.     I,  whom  nor  avarice  nor 
pleasure  moves. 

1  Neither— nor ;'  'Either— or;'  ' Whether— or.' 

332.  These  may  be  called  alternative  conjunctions.     An  al- 
ternative is  a  choice  between  two,  and  only  two  :  hence  these 

F 


122  SYNTAX. 

conjunctions  must  not  be  used  to  couple  more  than  two  terms. 
'Either  —  or'  denotes  one  thing  with  a  choice  of  another; 
'  neither'  means  simply  not  either ;  '  whether — or'  means  lit- 
erally which  of  the  two — or.  This  principle  is  constantly  lost 
sight  of. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1.  These  rules  should  be  kept  in  mind  as  aids  either  for 

speaking,  composing,  or  parsing  correctly. — MorrelVs 
Grammar. 
EXPLANATION. — Incorrect.     Rectify  it  by  omitting  the  '  either.' 

2.  Neither  in  France,  in  Spain,  in  Italy,  nor  in  Germany, 

is  this  false  and  absurd  appellation  in  use. —  Cobbett's 
Grammar. 

Correct  thus  :  'This  false  and  absurd  appellation  is  not  in  use  in  France, 
Spain,  Italy,  or  Germany.' 

'Now.' 

333.  There  is  a  peculiar  use  of  the  adverb  cnow,'  that  ren- 
ders it  in  certain  cases  a  conjunction.     EXAMPLE  :  He  was 
promised  a  holiday  if  he  executed  his  task ;  noio,  he  has  done 
the  task ;  hence  he  is  entitled  to  the  holiday. 

Connection  of  Terms. 

334.  Any  two  terms  that  we  connect  by  a   conjunction 
should  be  the  same  in  kind  or  quality,  not  different  or  hete- 
rogeneous. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1.  Macaulay  wrote  the  history  of  England  with  the  two- 

fold purpose  of  clearing  the  name  of  the  Whigs  from 
the  charges  made  by  Hume,  and  to  set  forth  the  real 
life  of  the  English  people. 

EXPLANATION. — Notice  the  two  expressions  joined  by  the  conjunction 
'and.'  'The  purpose  of  clearing  the  name,'  etc.,  and  'the  purpose  [un- 
derstood] to  set  forth,'  etc.  The  two  terms  are  different  or  heterogeneous 
— the  one  being  a  participial  construction,  the  other  an  infinitive  construc- 
tion, and  accordingly  the  sentence  violates  the  rule.  Correct  it  thus :  The 
purpose  of  clearing  the  name,  etc.,  and  of  setting  forth  the  real  life,  etc. 

2.  There  are  many  persons  who  have  the  means  of  doing 

good,  but  have  not  the  desire  to  do  good. 
EXPLANATION. — The  fault  lies  in  joining,  by  means  of  the  conjunction 
'but,'  two  terms  that  are  not  of  the  same  kind  or  quality,  namely, '  of  do- 
ing  good,'  and  ''to  do  good.'  The  sentence  may  be  correctly  turned  thus : 
Many  persons  have  the  means  of  doing  good,  but  have  not  the  desire  of  do- 
ing good ;  or,  better  still,  Many  persons  have  the  means,  without  the  de- 
sire, of  doing  good. 


PRACTICAL   SYNTAX   OF   THE    CONJUNCTION.  123 

3.  I  would  do  as  much  or  more  work  than  John. 

EXPLANATION. — This  is  a  somewhat  complicated  blunder;  let  us  see  if 
we  can  detect  exactly  where  the  fault  lies.  The  sentence  makes,  in  point 
of  fact,  two  statements  : 

(1.)  'I  would  do  as  much  work  than  John'  (we  must  supply  the  ' than,' 
because  it  is  expressed  in  the  second  member). 

(2.)  'I  would  do  more  work  than  John.' 

But  '  as  much  than'  is  nonsense,  since  the  compound  conjunction  is  '  as 
much  as. '  The  way  to  turn  such  a  sentence  is  to  say, '  I  would  do  as  much 
work  as  John,  or  more.1 

4.  The  happy  historian  has  no  other  labor  than  \  of  gath- 

ering what  tradition  pours  down  before  him. 

EXPLANATION. — In  this  sentence  the  conjunction  than  connects  what 
terms  ?  The  terms  '  other  labor'  and  '  of  gathering. '  But  these  are  of 
wholly  different  kinds  or  qualities.  The  sentence  is  corrected  by  supplying 
the  pronoun  4that'  to  correspond  with  the  term  '  other  labor.'  Thus  The 
happy  historian  has  no  other  labor  than  that  of  gathering  what  tradition 
pours  down  before  him. 

Ellipsis  of  Conjunctions. 

335.  Some   conjunctions    are   often   properly   suppressed. 
Such  are : 

1.  And  and  or  before  all  but  the  last  of  several  words, 

phrases,  or  clauses  of  the  same  kind  in  a  series,  and 
in  the  elevated  style  of  writing,  even  before  the  last. 
EXAMPLE  :  Science  has  now  left  her  retreats,  [and] 
her  shades,  [and]  her  selected  company  of  votaries. 

2.  Hither  before  or,  and  neither  before  nor.     EXAMPLE  : 

None  of  them  [either]  returned  his  gaze,  or  seemed 
to  notice  it. — Dickens. 

3.  That  when  the  connecting  word  between  the  principal 

member  and  the  dependent  proposition  of  a  sentence. 
EXAMPLE  :  But  Brutus  says  [that]  he  was  ambitious. 
— Shakspeare.  "  You're  sure  [that]  you  did  not,  sir," 
said  Mr.  Winkle. — Dickens. 

4.  Yet  after  though.     EXAMPLE. — Though  he  fall,  [yet]  he 

shall  not  be  utterly  cast  down. 

t 
The  Rhetoric  of  Conjunctions. 

336.  A  rhetorical  effect  may  be  produced  by  omitting  con- 
junctions.    In  like  manner,  a  rhetorical  effect  is  produced  by 
supplying  conjunctions  where  they  would  ordinarily  be  omit- 
ted.   In  each  case  it  is  departure  from  the  commonplace  prac- 
tice that  produces  the  effect. 


124  SYNTAX. 

ILLUSTRATION —  Conjunction  omitted. 

Through  many  a  dark  and  dreary  vale 
They  passed,  and  many  a  region  dolorous  ; 
O'er  many  a  frozen,  many  a  fiery  Alp, 
Rocks,  caves,  lakes,  fens,  bogs,  dens,  and  shades  of  death, 
A  universe  of  death. — Milton* 

ILLUSTRATION —  Conjunctions  in  full. 

Seasons  return,  but  not  to  me  returns 
Bay,  or  the  sweet  approach  of  even  or  morn, 
Or  sight  of  vernal  bloom,  or  summer's  rose, 
Or  flocks,  or  herds,  or  human  face  divine. — Milton. 

8.  Syntax  of  Moods  and  Tenses. 
'!F  HE  is'  and  C!F  HE  BE.' 

337.  It  is  sometimes  difficult  to  tell  whether  to  use  the  In- 
dicative or  the  Subjunctive  Mood  when  the  verb  is  preceded 
by  a  conditional  conjunction;  that  is,  to  know  whether  to 
say  if  he  be  or  if  he  is,  if  he  love  or  if  he  loves. 

338.  The  rule  is  that,  whenever  one  of  the  potential  auxil- 
iaries, 'may/  'can,'  'would/  'should/  is  understood,  or  the  future 
auxiliary  '  shall/  the  subjunctive  form  is  to  be  used. 

NOTE. — («)  The  potential  auxiliary  is  understood  when  doubt  or  contin- 
gency is  implied.  -  Review  what  is  said  on  the  real  nature  of  the  Subjunc- 
tive Mood,  1 157-160. 

(b}  The  choice  between  the  Indicative  and  the  so-called  Subjunctive 
Mood  has  long  been  a  matter  of  great  practical  difficulty.  It  is  believed 
that  the  above  treatment  of  the  subjunctive  as  an  elliptical  form  of  the  Po- 
tential will  serve  to  make  the  matter  at  least  a  little  more  intelligible.  The 
tendency  of  modern  usage  is  wholly  to  disregard  the  niceties  of  the  Sub- 
junctive Mood,  and  it  seems  probable  that  this  form  will  in  time  wholly 
disappear  from  our  language.  The  irregular  verb  to  be  is  the  only  verb 
retaining  any  thing  like  full  inflection  of  the  Subjunctive  Mood. 

ILLTJSTKATIONS. 

1.  Though  he  slay  me,  yet  will  I  trust  in  him. 
EXPLANATION. — In  this  sentence  'slay1  is  rightly  in  the  Subjunctive 

Mood,  and  the  indicative  slays  would  be  wrong.     Putting  the  sentence  in 
the  regular  or  common  order,  it  will  stand, 

I  will  trust  in  him,  though  he  [may]  slay  me. 

Since  '  may'  is  understood,  we  must  use  slay  [the  Subjunctive  Mood], 
since  to  say  may  slays  would  be  absurd. 

2.  If  he  believes  in  the  law  of  charity,  he  does  not  prac- 

tice it. 

EXPLANATION. — In  this  sentence,  it  is  plain  that  there  is  no  contingency 
implied,  for  we  can  not  supply  a  potential  auxiliary,  and  say  *  if  he  [may] 


SYNTAX    OF   MOODS   AND   TENSES.  125 

believe.'  The  statement  is  assumed  as  a  fact,  and  is  equivalent  to  'If  he 
does  believe  in  the  law  of  charity,  he  does  not  practice  it. '  Hence  the  con- 
ditional form  of  the  Indicative  Mood  is  correctly  used  after  the  conjunc- 
tion if.  Whenever  the  Indicative  auxiliary  does  or  do  can  be  supplied,  the 
Indicative  Mood  is  required  after  the  Conditional  Conjunctions. 

Remember  that  the  Conjunctions  ''of,'1  i  though,'  'but,'  l unless,'  etc.,  are 
not  signs  of  the  Subjunctive  Mood.  They  may  be  used  with  either  the  In- 
dicative or  the  Subjunctive  Mood,  the  sense  determining  which  should  be  em- 
ployed. 

3.  If  he  thinks  as  he  speaks,  he  may  safely  be  trusted. 
EXPLANATION. — If  he  speaks =if  he  does  speak,  not  If  he  may  speak. 

Hence  the  Indicative  is  correctly  used. 

4.  Pie  acts  uprightly  unless  he  deceives  me. 
EXPLANATION. — This  does  not  mean  unless  he  may  deceive  me,  but  un- 
less he  does  deceive  me.     Hence  the  Indicative  is  used. 

5.  If  he  'see  the  signal  he  will  answer. 

EXPLANATION. — This  means  if  he  shall  see,  or  if  he  should  see;  hence 
the  subjunctive  is  the  proper  form.  If  the  sentence  meant  if  he  does  see, 
the  indicative  form,  if  he  sees,  would  be  used. 

6.  If  it  we*e  [it  should  be]  done,  when  'tis  done, 

Then  'twere  [it  would  be]  well  it  were  [it  should  be~] 
done  quickly. — Shakspeare. 

THE  USE  OF  TENSES. 

339.  In  constructing  a  sentence,  be  careful  to  use  the  tense 
of  the  verb  fitted  to  express  the  exact  meaning.  The  appli- 
cation of  this  principle  will  be  seen  by  the  following  illustra- 
tions : 

Present  Infinitive. 

1.  Last  week  I  intended  to  have  written  him  a  letter. 
EXPLANATION. — This  is  a  very  common  form  of  expression,  but  it  is  in- 

.  correct.  No  matter  how  long  it  now  is  since  I  thought  of  writing,  to  write 
was  present  to  me  when  I  intended,  and  must  still  be  considered  present 
when  I  recall  the  intention.  The  sentence  should  be,  Last  week  I  intended 
to  write  a  letter. 

2.  I  expected  last  year  to  have  gone  to  Europe  on  busi- 

ness. 

EXPLANATION.  —  For  the  same  reason  as  before  given,  this  sentence 
should  read,  I  expected  last  year  to  go  to  Europe  on  business. 

3.  When  I  went  to  Europe  I  hoped  to  have  visitecl  Italy. 
-  EXPLANATION.  —  For  the  same  reason  as  before  given,  this  sentence 

should  be,  I  hoped  to  visit,  etc. 

4.  It  is  a  long  time  since  I  commanded  him  to  have  done 

it. 
EXPLANATION. — This  sentence  is  formed  on  the  model  of  the  three  fore- 


126  SYNTAX. 

going  sentences.     It  will  readily  be  seen  that  it  is  absurd,  but  it  is  no  worse 
than  the  others  are. 

340.  The  following  rule  applies  to  sentences  like  the  above : 
All  verbs  expressing  hope,  desire,  intention,  or  command,  must 
be  followed  by  the  Present  Infinitive,  and  not  by  the  Perfect  In- 
finitive. 

Perfect  Infinitive. 

1.  Bishop  Usher  believed  the  earth  to  have  been  created 

4004  B.C. 

EXPLANATION. — Here  it  is  evident  that  the  Perfect  Infinitive  is  correct- 
ly used,  the  sentence  being  equivalent  to  '  Bishop  Usher  believed  that  the 
earth  was  created  4004  B.C. — the  created  being  a  past  event  at  the  time 
Bishop  Usher  formed  his  opinion. 

2.  Alexander  considered  the  battle  of  the  Granicus  to  have 

been  won  by  the  charge  of  the  Macedonian  phalanx. 
Here  the  act  spoken  of  is  regarded  as  having  been  completed  before  the 
time  when  he  considered. 

341.  These  illustrations  show  that  the  Perfect  Infinitive  is 
used  if  the  act  spoken  of  is  regarded  as  completed  before  the 
time  expressed  by  the  following  verb. 

iHP0  It  is  evident  from  these  examples  that  whether  the  Present  Infini- 
tive is  to  be  used  or  the  Perfect  Infinitive  depends  on  the  idea  to  be  con- 
veyed. 

HAKMONY  OF  TENSES. 

342.  A  proper  harmony  and  correspondence  of  Tenses  must  be 
observed. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1.  I  shall  be  much  gratified  if  you  icoidd  favor  us  with 

your  company. 

EXPLANATION. — A  proper  harmony  requires  the  future  indicative, '  will 
favor,'  not  the  past  potential, '  would  favor.' 

2.  I  feared  that  I  should  have  missed  the  train  before  I 

reached  the  depot. 

EXPLANATION. — This  is  equivalent  to  '  at  that  time  [past]  I  feared  that  I 
should  miss  [future]  the  train  before  I  reached  the  depot.  Hence  the  sen- 
tence should  read,  I  feared  that  I  should  miss  the  train  before  I  reached  the 
de'pot.- 

3.  I  can  not  excuse  the  carelessness  of  the  officer  whose 

duty  it  was  to  have  watched  the  enemy's  approach. 

It  should  be  to  watch. 

4.  Columbus  believed  that  the  earth  icas  spherical. 
EXPLANATION. — Here  was  should  be  is,  because  it  is  not  the  intention 


SYNTAX    OF   MOODS   AND   TENSES.  127 

to  state  that  the  roundness  of  the  earth  was  a  fact  of  the  past ;  it  is  an  im- 
mutable truth,  and  the  rule  is  that  such  statements  must  always  be  made 
in  the  present  tense. 

5.  If  you  are  not  careful,  you  might  fall  overboard. 
The  proper  tense  is  '  may  fall. ' 

6.  I  know  him  for  more  than  ten  years. 

Say  have  known. 

7.  Nor  has  it  ever  been  seriously  undertaken,  until  it  was 

commenced,  within  the  last  ten  years,  by  the  Lon- 
don Philological  Society. — Marsh. 

The  present  perfect  tense  is  here  wrongly  used.  It  should  be,  Nor  was 
it  ever  seriously  undertaken,  etc.,  or  else,  Nor  had  it  ever  been,  etc. 

Correct  the  following :  1.  By  letters  dated  May  3d,  we  learn 
that  the  West  India  fleet  arrived  safely.  2.  I  have  lost  the 
game,  though  I  thought  I  should  have  won  it.  3.  The  next 
New-Year's  day  I  shall  be  at  school  three  years. 

ELLIPSIS  OF  VEEBS. 

343.  The  following  sentences  illustrate  a  common  blunder 
in  the  ellipsis  of  parts  of  compound  verbs  : 

1.  This  elucidation  may  serve  for  almost  any  book  that 

has,  is,  or  shall  be  published. — Bolingbroke. 
EXPLANATION. — 'Published,'  the  past  participle  of  the  verb  publish,  is 
correctly  used  with  '  shall  be ;'  its  ellipsis  with  '  is'  is  proper ;  but  the  ellip- 
sis with  '  has'  is  not  correct,  because  the  writer  intended  to  say  has  been 
published,  using  the  present  perfect  tense,  passive  voice. 

344.  Hence  the  rule :  When  two  or  more  Compound  Tenses 
of  the  same  Verb  are  connected,  such  parts  of  the  Tenses  as  are 
not  common  to  all  must  be  inserted  in  full. 

2.  Did  he  not  tell  you  his  fault,  and  entreated  you  to  for- 

give him  ? 

EXPLANATION. — The  two  verbs  here  connected  are  'did  tell'  and  'en- 
treated;' but,  supplying  the  ellipsis  before  the  second  verb,  we  have  l  did 
he  not  entreated,'  which  is  incorrect,  as  '  did'  is  never  used  with  a  past  par- 
ticiple. The  sentence  fully  corrected  is,  'Did  he  not  tell  you  his  fault,  and 
did  he  not  entreat  you  to  forgive  him?'  It  is  allowable  to  drop  the  aux- 
iliary before  the  second  verb  if  the  verb  is  put  into  a  form  to  harmonize 
with  the  auxiliary ;  hence  we  may  say,  '  Did  he  not  tell  you  his  fault,  and 
entreat,'  etc. 

Hence  the  rule :  When  Verbs  are  connected  by  a  Conjunc- 
tion, never  make  an  ellipsis  of  an  auxiliary  used  before  the  first 
Verb  if  the  after  forms  of  the  Verb  will  not  harmonize  with  the 
auxiliary  when  supplied. 


128  SYNTAX. 

SHALL  AND  WILL. 
'  I  will  drown ;  nobody  shall  help  me.' 

The  unfortunate  foreigner  that  fell  into  a  river,  not  understanding  En- 
glish idioms,  exactly  reversed  the  places  of  shall  and  will  when  he  made 
use  of  this  exclamation.  He  meant  to  say,  I  shall  drown  [i.  e. ,  I  expect 
to  drown],  because  nobody  will  help  me.' 

345.  The  correct  and  elegant  use  of  shall  and  will  is  one 
of  the  most  difficult  things  in  the  English  language  for  a  for- 
eigner to  learn.     Correct  usage,' indeed,  is  often  violated  by 
those  that  speak  and  write  English  as  their  mother  tongue. 

346.  Shall  and  will  are  the  two  auxiliaries  by  which  we  ex- 
press our  future  tense,  the  English  language  having  no  dis- 
tinct and  separate  forms  of  the  verb  to  express  mere  future 
time ;  but  each  of  these  auxiliaries  has  its  own  specific  shade 
of  meaning  besides  that  of  futurity,  and  hence  arise  many 
nice  distinctions  in  their  peculiar  and  appropriate  uses. 

Shall  etymologically  means  to  owe,  or  to  be  morally  bound.  It  is  traced 
back  in  its  origin  to  the  Gothic  skal,  which  meant  I  have  killed,  and  thence 

I  owe  the  penalty.     Chaucer  writes, '  By  the  faith  I  shall  to  God,'  meaning 

I 1  owe  to  God. '     WILL  means  to  wish,  or  to  be  willing.     Etymologically, 
then,  SHALL  implies  obligation  or  necessity,  and  WILL  implies  wish,  con- 
sent, or  volition. 

Case  I.— Futurity. 

I    )  You  ) 

™-    >  shall  write.  He     >  will  write. 

They  j 

347.  The  reason  of  the  preceding  use  of  shall  in  the  first 
person,  and  will  in  the  second  and  third  persons,  seems  to  be 
this :  When  a  person  says, '  I  shall  write  a  letter,'  he  express- 
es his  own  obligation  to  write ;  but  he  expresses  the  obliga- 
tion of  another  person  more  deferentially  and  delicately  by 
referring  to  that  person's  wish  rather  than  to  obligation.     It 
is  a  form  of  grammatical  politeness. 

348.  The  misuse  of  Witt  instead  of  shall  in  the  first  person, 
denoting  mere  futurity,  is  common  in  many  parts  of  our 
country;  thus: 

'  In  a  century  hence  we  will  [shall]  be  a  great  and  power- 
ful people.' — Newspaper. 
'We  will  [shall]  undoubtedly  elect  our  candidate  by  a 

large  majority.' — Newspaper. 

The  same  rule  of  courtesy  is  the  reason  why  shall  is  not  always  used  in 
the  first  person  plural.  When  we  means  he  and  I,  it  is  followed  by  shall; 


SYNTAX    OP   MOODS    AND    TENSES.  129 

but  when  it  means  you  and  7,  the  courteous  and  deferential  will  takes  the 
place  of  shall.  If  the  speaker  puts  himself  in  the  third  person  he  will  not 
use  shall,-  as,  '  Mr.  Brown  will  be  glad  of  Mr.  Smith's  company  at  dinner 
to-day,'  or, 'Dear  Smith,  I  shall  be  glad  of  your  company  to-day  at  dinner.' 

Case  II— Determination,  Command, 
ii  You  ) 

A1r7    >  will  write.  He     >  shall  write. 

They) 

349.  'We  will  write'  may  mean  'We  promise  to  write,'  or 
it  may  express  our  determination  to  write.     In  either  case 
will  retains  its  proper  force,  to  wish,  to  resolve,  to  consent. 
'  You  shall  write'  means  '  I  have  power  over  you,  and  I  am 
determined  to  force  you  to  write ;'  i.  e.9  I  will  you  to  write. 

In  the  two  common  forms  of  polite  speech,  '  I  shall  be  obliged  to  you' 
and  '  I  will  thank  you,'  the  auxiliaries  are  rightly  placed,  and  ought  not  to 
be  reversed.  '  I  shall  be  greatly  obliged  to  you'  foretells  an  obligation  in 
the  future  for  which  I  ought  to  thank  you,  and  '  I  will  thank  you.'  expresses 
my  intention  or  my  promise  to  thank  you.  '  I  will  be  greatly  obliged  to 
you'  and  'I  shall  thank  you'  are  inelegant  and  ungrammatical. 

Case  III— Asking  Questions. 

Shall  I  write  ?  Will  you  write  ? 

Shall  we  write  ?  Will  he  or  they  write  ? 

350.  The  usual  form  in  interrogative  sentences  is  shall  in 
the  first  person,  and  will  in  the  others,  but  it  can  not  be  laid 
down  as  an  invariable  rule  to  reverse  the  declarative  forms. 
Thus  we  say, 'Will  you  go?'  or  'Shall  you  go?'     The  first 
form  implies  a  request;  the  second  form,  intention. 

351.  In  asking  a  question  ice  generally  use  the  form  of  ex- 
pression in  which  we  expect  the  answer  to  be  given. 

If  I  say  '  Shall  you  go  to  school  to-morrow  ?'  [Do  you  intend  to  go  to 
school  to-morrow  ?],  I  expect  the  answer  from  you  1 1  shall'  [I  intend  to 
go].  If  I  expect  a  promise,  I  say,  'Will  you  write  a  composition  ?'  and  ex- 
pect the  promise  'I  will.'  It  is  a  piece'of  good  manners,  a  part  of  gram- 
matical courtesy. 

4  You  will  go  to  school  to-morrow'  may  be  said  affirmatively  even,  with 
the  rising  inflection,  and  then  the  answer  expected  is  'I  will,'  or  4 1  will  not.' 
The  expression  'You  will  go  to  school  to-morrow,  shall  you  not?'  may 
seem  to  be  redundant,  but  it  is  quite  correct. 

BLUNDERS  IN  VERBS. 

352.  The  following  are  some  of  the  most  common  vulgar- 
isms in  the  use  of  verbs. 

1.  I  done  [did]  my  example  in  arithmetic  correctly. 

Why  is  this  a  stupid  blunder  ?  Correct  it,  and  be  careful  not  to  use  so 
gross  a  vulgarism  either  in  talking  or  in  writing. 

F2 


130  SYNTAX. 

2.  I  seen  him  when  he  done  it. 
What  are  the  two  vulgarisms  here  used  ? 

3.  Where  is  Alice  ?    She  has  went  [gone]  to  school. 
Why  does  this  jar  on  the  ear  of  every  cultivated  person  ? 

4.  Hadn't  [had  not]  I  ought  to  do  it  ? 

Had  is  never  used  as  an  auxiliary  of  ought.  You  should  say  '  ought  not 
I  to  do  it  ?' 

5.  I  had  rather  not  do  it. 

EXPLANATION. — Say  'I  would  rather  not  do  it.'  The  written  form, 
sometimes  seen,  probably  originated  in  a  mistake  as  to  the  composition  of 
the  oral  expression,  ''I'd  rather  not,'  etc.  It  is  an  abbreviation  of  I  would 
rather,  and  not  of  I  had  rather.  l  I'd  [=1  would]  rather  be  a  dog  and  bay 
the  moon.' — Shakspeare. 

6.  'Tisrft  a  wasp.     IPs  John  that  goes  to  school. 
EXPLANATION. — 'Tis  and  it's  are  not  commendable  forms  for  it  is. 

Though  allowable  in  conversation,  they  should  not  be  used  in  written  com- 
position. '  'Tis'  is  a  poetic  license,  as, 

'Twas  mine,  'tis  his,  and  has  been  slave  to  thousands. — -Shakspeare. 

7.  I  have  not  done  it  yet,  but  I  mean  to. 
EXPLANATION. — It  is  very  clumsy  to  omit  the  infinitive  after  to ;  and 

though  in  ordinary  conversation  this  ellipsis  often  occurs,  it  is  not  allowa- 
ble in  accurate  writing.  Either  repeat  the  verb,  or  supply  its  place  by  do 
or  do  so.  i  I  have  not  done  it  yet,  but  I  mean  to  do  it.'  '  You  may  take 
a  walk,  if  you  like.'  Better  thus:  'You  may  take  a  walk,  if  you  like  to 
do  so.' 

CIS   BEING   DONE.' 

353.  Forms  like  the  above  are  felt  to  be  very  awkward. 
The  house  is  being  built,  It  has  been  being  built  many  months, 
are  such  disagreeable  phrases,  through  the  repetition  of  the 
verb  be,  that  we  avoid  them  when  possible.  It  is  common 
even  to  say  the  house  is  building,  or  has  been  building,  as  if 
build  were  an  intransitive  verb.  But  this  is  not  strictly  cor- 
rect. The  old  English  expression,  It  is  a-building  (at  build- 
ing,'m  the  process  of  building'),  is  preferable,  though  seldom 
used.  We  must  choose  among  the  following  forms  of  ex- 
pression : 

The  house  has  been  many  months  a  building  (which  is 
good,  old  Saxon  English) ; 

The  house  has  been  many  months  building  (perhaps  el- 
liptical for  the  above,  but  in  itself  incorrect) ; 

The  house  has  been  many  months  being  built  (which  is 
correct,  but  intolerably  awkward). 


SYNTAX    OF   MOODS   AND   TENSES.  131 

Or  we  must  vary  the  expression  by  saying, 

They  have  been  many  months  building  the  house ; 
Or,  The  house  has  been  many  months  in  course  (or  pro- 
cess) of  building. 

Exercise  39. 

The  following  sentences  illustrate  a  great  variety  of  FAULTS 
OF  SYNTAX.  The  pupil,  in  correcting  these  sentences ,  is  to  ap- 
ply the  principles  heretofore  learned: 

1.  This  is  very  easy  done. 

2.  The  great  historian  and  the  essayist  is  no  more. 

3.  It  could  not  have  been  her. 

4.  Did  you  see  the  man  and  the  dog  which  passed  this  way  ? 

5.  I  intend  to  immediately  retire  from  business. 

6.  I  think  I  will  return  home  next  week. 

7.  He  seldom  or  ever  visits  us. 

8.  It  is  thinking  makes  what  we  read  ours. 

9.  The  death  was  announced  lately  of  the  great  statesman. 

10.  Who  are  you  looking  for  ? 

11.  The  collection  of  books  that  have  come  down  to  us  from  that  period 

are  very  valuable. 

1 2.  I  expected  to  have  been  at  home  when  you  called. 

13.  It  was  him  and  me  that  were  chosen  to  go. 

14.  When  will  we  three  meet  again? 

15.  He  not  only  ought,  but  must  succeed. 
.16.  I  never  saw  it  rain  so  heavy  before. 

17.  His  work  is  one  of  the  best  that  have  ever  appeared. 

18.  It  has  been  said  that  politics  are  but  little  more  than  common  sense. 

19.  Metal  types  were  now  introduced,  which  before  this  time  had  been  made 

of  wood. 

20.  No  man  ever  bestowed  such  a  gift  to  his  kind. 

21.  The  book  is  fitted  either  for  school  or  private  use. 

22.  This  is  one  of  the  most  memorable  battles  that  ever  have  or  will  be 

fought. 

23.  All  thinking  men  believe  that  the  soul  was  immortal. 

24.  He  found  he  had  lost  his  sight,  and  was  led  from  the  battle-field  by  a 

soldier. 

25.  It  is  now  five  days  since  you  have  arrived. 

26.  I  trust  you  shall  overlook  the  circumstance  of  me  having  come  to  school 

late. 

27.  The  regiment  had  no  less  than  a  hundred  men  fell  in  the  engagement. 

28.  What  is  the  difference  between  an  adjective  and  participle  ? 
'29.  These  flowers  smell  very  sweetly  and  look  beautifully. 

30.  Have  you  no  other  book  but  this  ? 

31.  He  is  only  fitted  to  govern  others  who  can  govern  himself. 

32.  The  spirit,  and  not  the  letter,  of  the  law  are  what  we  ought  to  follow. 

33.  This  one  seems  more  preferable  than  the  other. 

34.  The  inscription  gave  the  name  and  age  of  the  deceased  merely. 

35.  Once  upon  a  time  there  lived  a  poor  man  who  had  two  sons,  near  a 

wood. 


132  SYNTAX. 

36.  I  found  the  knight  under  the  butler's  hands  who  always  shaved  him. 

37.  Flour  will  not  do  to  make  our  bread  alone. 

38.  No  one  in  England  knew  what  tea  was  two  hundred  years  ago. 

39.  The  man  could  neither  read  or  write. 

40.  The  gook  of  Psalms  were  written  by  David. 

41.  That  building  must  be  either  a  church  or  school. 

42.  Here  come  my  old  friend  and  teacher. 

43.  The  minute  finger  and  the  hour  hand  has  each  its  particular  use. 

44.  Which  of  that  group  of  men  is  the  taller  ? 

45.  What  boy  amongst  us  can  foretell  their  future  career  ? 

46.  She  walked  with  the  lamp  across  the  room  still  burning. 

47.  An  account  of  the  great  events  in  all  parts  of  the  world  are  given  in 

the  daily  papers. 

48.  I  shall  not  trouble  any  reader,  being  studious  of  brevity,  with  all  the 

curiosities  I  observed. 

49.  If  were  in  his  position,  I  would  not  have  gone. 

50.  They  would  neither  eat  themselves  nor  suffer  nobody  else  to  eat. 

51.  Wild  horses  are  caught  with  a  lasso,  or  a  noose. 

52.  Did  you  expect  to  have  heard  so  poor  a  speech  ? 

53.  I  can  not  give  you  no  more  money. 

54.  Am  I  the  scholar  who  am  to  be  punished. 

55.  There  were  a  large  number  of  soldiers  killed  and  wounded. 

56.  We  did  no.  more  but  what  we  ought  to. 

57.  We  have  done  no  more  than  it  was  our  duty  to  hare  done. 

58.  He  is  a  man  of  remarkable  clear  intellect. 

59.  He  showed  me  two  kinds,  but  I  did  not  buy  any  of  them. 

60.  I  never  have  nor  never  will  forgive  him. 

61.  Every  one  is  the  best  judge  of  their  own  conscience. 

62.  They  told  me'of  him  having  failed. 

63.  I  understand  why  the  water  never  rises  high  quite  well. 

64.  He  has  already,  and  will  continue  to  receive  many  honors. 

65.  A  dervise  was  met  by  two  merchants  traveling  alone  in  a  desert. 

66.  One  species  of  bread  of  coarse  quality  was  only  allowed  to  be  baked. 

67.  The  party  whom  he  invited  was  very  numerous. 

68.  It  is  now  about  four  hundred  years  since  the  art  of  multiplying  books 

has  been  discovered. 

69.  An  officer  on  European  and  on  Indian  service  are  in  very  different  sit- 

uations. 

70.  The  doctor  said  in  his  lecture  that  fever  always  produced  thirst. 

71.  Alarmed  by  so  unusual  an  occurrence,  it  was  resolved  to  postpone  their 

departure. 

72.  The  Annals  of  Florence  are  a  most  imposing  work. 

73.  Such  expressions  sound  harshly. 

74.  What  can  be  the  cause  of  the  Parliament  neglecting  so  important  a 

business  ? 

75.  Either  you  or  I  are  in  the  way. 

76.  He  would  not  be  persuaded  but  what  I  was  greatly  in  fault. 

77.  I  do  not  think  that  leisure  of  life  and  tranquillity  of  mind,  which  for- 

tune and  your  own  wisdom  has  given  you,  could  be  better  employed. 

78.  That  is  seldom  or  ever  the  case. 

79.  The  fact  of  me  being  a  stranger  to  him  does  not  justify  his  conduct. 

80.  Let  me  awake  the  King  of  Morven,  he  that  is  like  the  sun  of  heaven 

rising  in  a  storm. 


SYNTAX    OF   MOODS   AND   TENSES.  133 

81.  Either  the  young  man  or  his  guardian  have  acted  improperly. 

82.  I  had  several  men  died  in  my  ship  of  yellow  fever. 

83.  The  following  treatise,  together  with  those  that  accompany  it,  were 

written  many  years  ago. 

84.  A  talent  of  this  kind  would  perhaps  prove  the  likeliest  of  any  other  to 

succeed. 

85.  The  ends  of  a  divine  and  human  legislation  are  very  different. 

86.  On  your  conduct  at  this  moment  depends  the  color  and  complexion  of 

their  destiny. 

87.  I  have  never  seen  Major  Cartwright,  much  less  enjoy  the  honor  of  his 

acquaintance. 

88.  I  am  afraid  of  the  man  dying  before  a  doctor  can  come. 

89.  That  is  either  a  man  or  a  woman's  voice. 

90.  Man,  though  he  has  great  variety  of  thoughts,  yet  they  are  all  within 

his  own  breast. 

91.  The  ebb  and  flow  of  the  tides  were  explained  by  Newton. 

92.  And  indeed  in  some  cases  we  derive  as  much  or  more  pleasure  from 

that  source  than  from  any  thing  else. 

93.  The  number  of  inhabitants  were  not  more  than  four  millions. 

94.  The  logical  and  historical  analysis  of  a  language  generally  in  some  de- 

gree coincides. 

95.  But  she  fell  a  laughing  like  one  out  of  their  right  mind. 

96.  Verse  and  prose  run  into  one  another  like  light  and  shade. 

97.  Homer  had  the  greatest  invention  of  any  writer  whatever. 

98.  Of  all  the  other  qualities  of  style,  clearness  is  the  most  important. 

99.  That  is  applied  to  persons  as  well  as  things. 

100.  The  maps  are  clear,  attractive  in  appearance,  and  not  encumbered 
with  minute  details  calculated  "only  to  embarrass  the  learner,  ex- 
cept the  reference  maps,  which  are  very  full  and  complete. 


PAET  III.     . 
ANALYSIS  AND  CONSTKUCTIOK     ' 

DEFINITION. 

354.  Analysis  is  resolving  sentences  into  their  component 
parts.     The  principles  of  Analysis  applied  to  the  building  up 
of  sentences  may  be  called  Synthesis  or  Construction. 

NOTE. — Analysis  is  a  sort  of  general  syntax  (being  equally  applicable  to 
all  languages),  and  in  this  text-book  is  made  to  follow  the  Special  Syntax 
of  our  own  tongue.  To  analyze  well-written  sentences  into  their  constitu- 
ent parts  is  the  best  means  of  understanding  how  to  write  correctly  our- 
selves. As  in  Chemistry,  so  in  Grammar,  there  are  two  processes,  Analysis 
and  Synthesis.  The  former  resolves  a  compound  into  its  elements ;  the 
latter  puts  elementary  substances  together  to  form  a  compound.  And  as 
the  chemist  takes  a  substance  to  pieces,  and  thus  learns  what  elements  go 
to  its  formation,  so  the  grammarian  analyzes  a  sentence  into  its  element- 
ary parts.  Then,  too,  as  the  chemist  combines  substances,  so  the  gram- 
marian puts  words  together  synthetically. 

CHAPTER  I. 

1.  Sentences. 

355.  A  Sentence  is  a  complete  thought  expressed  by  means 
either  of  one  proposition  or  of  several  propositions. 

Practically  a  sentence  embraces  all  the  words  between  two  full  stops. 

356.  A  Proposition  is  the  statement  of  a  single  fact  by 
means  of  one  subject  and  of  one  predicate. 

357.  Propositions  are  of  two  kinds: 

1.  Principal — containing  the  leading  statement  or  state- 

ments of  the  sentence. 

2.  Dependent  —  containing  the  subordinate  statement  or 

statements  of  the  sentence. 

NOTE. — The  term  CLAUSE,  whenever  used  in  this  book,  is  synonymous 
with  dependent  proposition. 

358.  Sentences  are  divided  into  Simple,  Complex^  and  Com- 
pound. 

1.  A  Simple  sentence  consists  of  a  single  proposition. 

2.  A  Complex  sentence  consists  of  one  principal  proposi- 

tion, together  with  one  or  more  dependent  proposi- 
tions. 


SENTENCES.  135 

3.  A  Compound  sentence  consists  of  two  or  more  prin- 
cipal propositions. 

ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  SENTENCES. 

1.  Simple  Sentence. — CI  hear  thee   speak  of  the  better 

land.'    c  At  daybreak,  all  fears  were  dispelled.' 

2.  Complex  Sentence. — 'When  morning  dawned  [depend- 

ent proposition],  all  fears  were  dispelled'  [principal 
proposition], 

3.  Compound  Sentence. — { -Morning  having  dawned^  ALL 

FEAKS    WEKE    DISPELLED ;     and    WE     SAW    THE    LAND 
WITHIN  A  FEW  LEAGUES    OF  US.' 

Each  principal  proposition  of  a  Compound  Sentence  may  have  one  de- 
pendent proposition  or  several  dependent  propositions  attached  to  it.  Such 
a  sentence  is  a  sort  of  composite  compound  sentence.  EXAMPLE  :  *  When 
morning  dawned  all  fears  were  dispelled ;  and  we  saw  the  land  for  which 
we  had  so  eagerly  watched  within  a  few  leagues  of  us.' 

NOTES. 

NOTE  I. — The  number  of  propositions  in  a  sentence  will  be  determined 
by  .the  number  of  verbs  it  contains. 

NOTE  II. — The  kind  of  any  proposition  will  be  determined  by  the  word 
which  stands  at  its  head,  that  is,  which  introduces  it.  All  propositions  in- 
troduced by  Relative  Pronouns,  or  Relative  Adverbs,  or  Subordinate  Con- 
junctions, are  Dependent. 

NOTE  III. — Every  sentence  must  contain  one  principal  proposition  at 
least,  but  may  contain  any  number  of  principal  propositions. 

NOTE  IV. — It  must  not  be  supposed  that  a  Simple  sentence  necessarily 
consists  of  only  a  few  words.  No  matter  how  many  qualifying  or  explan- 
atory terms  a  sentence  may  contain,  if  it  has  but  one  subject  and  one  pred- 
icate, it  is  a  Simple  sentence.  '  Jesus  wept'  is  a  Simple  sentence  contain- 
ing two  words  -,  the  following  is  also  a  Simple  sentence,  though  containing 
sixty-two  words : 

4  About  fourscore  years  ago  there  USED  TO  BE  SEEN  sauntering  on  the 
pleasant  terraces  of  Sans  Souci,  for  a  short  time  in  the  afternoon,  or  driv- 
ing in  a  rapid,  business  manner  on  the  open  roads,  or  through  the  scraggy 
woods  and  avenues  of  that  intricate,  amphibious  Potsdam  region,  a  highly 
interesting  lean,  little  old  MAN,  of  alert,  though  slightly  stooping  figure. ' — 
Carlyles  Frederick  the  Great. 

NOTE  V. — It  may  aid  the  scholar  in  discriminating  between  Compound 
and  Complex  sentences  if  he  remembers  that  in  Compound  sentences  the 
parts  are  joined  by  co-ordinate  conjunctions  [see  1  83] ;  in  Complex  by 
subordinate  conjunctions.  In  Compound  sentences  the  numbers  are  mere- 
ly put  together  (cum  and  pono),  while  in  Complex  sentences  they  are  woven 
together  (cum  and  plecto). 


136  ANALYSIS   AND   CONSTRUCTION. 

Kinds  of  Sentences. 

359.  Sentences  may  be  thus  classified  as  to  the  form,  they 
take — 

1.  The  Sentence  Assertive  or  Declarative  ;  as,  Gold  is  yel- 

low (affirmative).     The  man  has  not  come  (negative). 

2.  The  Sentence  Interrogative;  ^Have  you  any  bread? 

3.  The  Sentence  Imperative;  as,  Go  back  to  your  place. 

4.  The  Sentence  Exclamatory ;  &§,How  softly  the  moon 

shines  ! 

NOTE. — The  Assertive  or  Declarative  form  being  the  main  type  of  all 
sentences,  this  form  will  be  used  throughout  in  analysis.  The  same  prin- 
ciples* that  apply  to  the  Declarative  form  apply  also  to  all  the  other  forms. 

The  Order  of  a  Sentence. 

360.  The  order  of  a  sentence  may  be  direct  or  inverted / 
and  in  resolving  a  sentence — that  is,  in  showing  the  elements 
that  enter  into  its  construction — it  is  necessary  to  reduce  it 
from  the  inverted  to  the  direct  form ;  thus : 

Inverted.  Now  fades  the  glimmering  landscape  on  the  sight. 

^ .  (  The  glimmering  landscape  fades  on  the  sight  now ;  or, 

tree  .   -j  rpjie  gijmmering  landscape  now  fades  on  the  sight. 
Inverted.  Thee  the  voice,  the  dance  obey. 
Direct.      The  voice,  the  dance  obey  thee. 
Inverted.  Slow  melting  strains  their  queen's  approach  declare. 
Direct.      Slow  melting  strains  declare  their  queen's  approach. 

2.  Elements  of  a  Sentence. 

361.  Every  sentence  must  contain  an  independent  subject 
and  an  independent  predicate.     These  are  the  essential  ele- 
ments of  a  sentence. 

362.  The  Predicate  is  that  part  of  the  sentence  that  makes 
a  statement. 

363.  The  Subject  is  that  about  which  the  statement  is  made. 
NOTE. — By  this  definition  we  may  always  test  whether  or  not  an  assem- 
blage of  words  is  a  sentence.     EXAMPLES  :   '  Sailing  in  a  steamer  to  Eu- 
rope;' 'A  design  which  has  never  been  completed.'     The  first  example 
contains  neither  subject  nor  predicate.     The  second  has  both  subject  and 
predicate,  but  they  are  not  independent,  as  the  relative  '  which'  converts 
what  would  otherwise  be  a  principal  sentence  into  a  dependent  proposi- 
tion. 

364.  A  Phrase  is  an  element  of  a  sentence  not  having  a 
subject  or  a  predicate,  but  introduced  by  a  preposition,  a  par- 
ticiple, or  an  infinitive. 


SENTENCES.  137 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1.  'Washington  retreated  into  New  Jersey. ,'     (Phrase  in- 

troduced by  &  preposition.) 

2.  * Having  crossed  the  Delaware,  Washington's  army  was 

safe.'     (Phrase  introduced  by  &  participle.) 

3.  '  To  attack  the  British  was  Washington's  next  object.' 

(Phrase  introduced  by  an  infinitive) 

365.  In  addition  to  the  essential  elements  of  a  sentence, 
there  are  two  subordinate  elements — the  adjective  element, 
and  the  adverbial  element. 

366.  An  Adjective  element  may  be — 

1.  A  single  word  (adjective  or  noun) ;  as, '  Wise  men  think 

rightly.'     'Milton,  the  poet,  wrote  Paradise  Lost.' 

2.  A  phrase;  as, 'Men  of  wisdom  think  rightly.'     'The 

Secretary  of  Oliver  Cromwell  wrote  Paradise  Lost.' 

3.  A  clause;  as, 'Men  who  possess  wisdom  think  rightly.' 

367.  An  Adverbial  element  may  be — 

1.  A  single  word  (adverb) ;  as, 'He  acts  wisely? 

2.  A  phrase  ;  as, '  He  acts  with  wisdom? 

3.  A  clause ;  as,  'He  acts  as  a  wise  man  should  act? 

368.  All  sentences,  however  elaborate  and  lengthy,  may  be 
resolved  into  these  four  elements : 

I.  Subject.  II.  Predicate. 

III.  Adjective  Element.        IV.  Adverbial  Element. 

3.  What  the  Subject  may  be. 

369.  The  Subject  of  a  sentence  may  be — 

1.  A  Noun  or  a  Pronoun;  as, 

'Buckle  wrote  a  History  of  Civilization.' 
'He  was  an  Englishman.' 

2.  A  Phrase  ;  as, 

'Not  to  know  me  argues  yourselves  unknown.' — Mil- 
ton. 
'Hiding  on  horseback  is  good  exercise.' 

3.  A  Noun- Clause ;  &$,'That  the  earth  is  spherical  was 

not  known  by  the  ancient  Greeks;'  'That  you  have 
wronged  me  doth  appear  in  this.' — Shakspeare. 


138  ANALYSIS    AND    CONSTRUCTION. 

4.  What  the  Predicate  may  be. 

370. 'The  Predicate  may  be  either  a  Complete  verb,  or  an 
Incomplete  verb  and  its  complement. 

371.  A  complete  verb  makes  sense  in  itself;  as, 'Time  flies ;' 
'Time  will  have  fled?  'Bread  is  eaten.' 

In  Complete  verbs  the  predicate  and  the  verb  coincide ;  that  is,  they  are 
one  and  the  same  thing.  A  Complete  verb  does  not  necessarily  consist  of 
a  single  word.  It  may  be  any  of  the  forms  of  the  verb  found  in  its  conju- 
gation. Thus  will  have  fled  is  the  future  perfect  of  ;  fly.' 

372.  An  Incomplete  verb  becomes  a  predicate  by  means  of 
various  kinds  of  complements. 

For  the  definition  of  Complement,  review  ^f  63. 

373.  The  complement  may  be — 

I.  The  direct  object  of  a  transitive  verb. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1.  'Greene  defeated  Cornwallis? 

In  this  sentence  it  is  evident  that  *  Cornwallis'  is  an  essential  part  of  the 
predicate,  as  no  thought  is  expressed  until  we  specify  whom  Greene  defeat- 
ed. The  same  fact  holds  true  of  all  transitive  verbs. 

The  complement  of  a  transitive  verb  is  what  is  usually  termed  the  object. 
Some  text-books  make  it  a  subordinate  element  of  a  sentence. 

2.  'He  expected  to  go  to  school?     'He  stopped  reciting 

his  lesson? 

The  first  is  a  phrase  introduced  by  an  infinitive ;  the  second,  a  phrase 
introduced  by  the  verbal  in  -ing,  equivalent  to  an  infinitive. 

3.  'Talleyrand  said  that  the  purpose  of  language  is  to  con- 

ceal thought? 

Here  the  complement  is  a  clause. 
II.  There  are  certain  classes  of  verbs  which,  in  order  to 

express  their  full  sense,  require  an  indirect  as  well  as 

a  direct  object. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1.  'Murray  taught  me  [indirect  object]  grammar'*  [direct 

object}. 

2.  'The  people   elected  Andrew  JacJcson  [direct  object] 

President  [indirect  object]. 

3.  'Columbus   told  the  Council  [indirect  object]  that  he 

could  sail  to  the  Indies'1  [direct  object,  clause']. 
When  a  verb  of  this  class  is  put  in  the  passive  voice,  the  direct  object 
becomes  the  subject,  and  the  indirect  the  complement.      '  The  people  elect- 
ed Jackson  President ;'  'Jackson  was  elected  President  by  the  people.' 


SENTENCES.  139 

4.  '  We  expected  him  to  go  to  school.' 

He  was  expected  to  go  to  school. 

Here  '  to  go  to  school,'  a  part  of  the  object,  in  the  active  voice,  becomes 
the  indirect  complement  of  the  verb  '  was  expected,'  in  the  passive. 

5.  'We  told  him  to  icaitf  [infinitive,  indirect  object  of 

4  told']. 
'He  was  told  to  waif  [indirect  object  of  was  told']. 

III.  Various  predicate  attributes  of  a  subject  used  with 
the  verb  '  to  be.' 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1.  'Man  is  mortal1  [complement  a  predicate  adjective]. 

2.  'And  the  earth  was  all  rest,  and  the  air  was  all  love? — 

Keats. .   [Here  the  complements  are  nouns,  termed 
predicate  nominatives]. 

3.  'It  is  she?     [Here  the  complement  is  a  personal  pro- 

noun as  predicate  nominative]. 

4.  '  His  intention  was  to  go.     [Here  the  complement  is  a 

phrase]. 

5.  'It  is  probable  that  he  has  stolen  the  money?    [Here  the 

complement  is  a  clause.] 

TV.  Various  predicate  attributes  used  with  neuter  verbs, 
other  than  the  verb  to  be. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1.  Napoleon  became  First  Consul?    [Complement  a  noun, 

predicate  nominative.'] 

2.  '  The  rose  smells  sweet?    [Complement  a  predicate  adjec- 

tive^ 

3.  '  He  died  a  natural  death?    [Complement  a  noun,  death, 

of  cognate  signification  with  died.] 

5.  How  the  Subject  may  be  enlarged. 
374.  The  Subject  is  enlarged  by  adjective  elements. 

1.  By  an  adjective;  as,  ''The  little  bird  sings.' 

2.  By  a  noun  in  apposition  ;  as, '  Newton,  the  philosopher 

[adjective  element],  discovered  the  law  of  gravita- 
tion.' 

3.  By  a  noun  or  a  pronoun  in  the  possessive  case ;  as,  'The 

ladies'  [adjective  element]  dresses  were  elegant.' 

4.  By  ^  phrase;  as, 'The  battle  of  Marathon  [adjective 

element]  secured  the  liberty  of  Greece.'     '  The  oxy- 


140  ANALYSIS   AND   CONSTRUCTION. 

gen  in  the  air  [adjective  element]  preserves  animal 
life.'  '  The  sea,  having  spent  its  fury  [participial  ad- 
jective element],  became  calm.' 

5.  By  a  clause;  as, 'Carbon,  ichich  is  the  life  of  plants 
[adjective  element],  is  destructive  to  animals.' 

An  adjective  clause  is  always  connected  with  the  subject  by  a  relative 
pronoun  or  a  relative  adverb. 

Exercise  40. 

State  by  what  kind  of  an  ADJECTIVE  ELEMENT  the  Subject  is 
enlarged  [ADJECTIVE  word  or  words,  ADJECTIVE  phrase,  or 
ADJECTIVE  clause]. 

1.  Good  old  red  wine  is  the  best. 

2.  Cagsar,  having  conquered  Gaul,  sailed  over  to  Britain. 

3.  Chaucer,  the  father  of  English  poetry,  wrote  the  Canterbury  Tales. 

4.  The  invention  of  the  steam-engine  has  made  ocean  navigation  swift 

and  safe. 

5.  So  ended  Hannibal's  first  campaign  in  Italy. — Arnold. 

6.  The  drum's  deep  roll  was  heard  afar. 

7.  Under  her  torn  hat  glowed  the  wealth 

Of  simple  beauty  and  rustic  health. —  Whittier. 

8.  The  railroad  that  connects  New  York  and  San  Francisco  is  the  longest 

in  the  world. 

9.  The  government  founded  by  our  fathers  will  not  be  broken  up  by  us. 

10.  A  little  old  man,  dressed  in  tattered  clothes,  passed  by  our  door. 

11.  Born  to  inherit  the  most  illustrious  monarchy  in  the  world,  and  early 

united  to  the  object  of  her  choice,  the  amiable  princess,  happy  in  her- 
self, and  joyful  in  her  future  prospects,  little  anticipated  the  fate  that 
was  so  soon  to  overtake  her. 

6.  Expansion  of  the  Subject. 

375.  Expansion  of  a  subject  is  the  enlargement  of  its  ad- 
jective element  from  a  word  to  &  phrase  or  from  a  phrase  to 
a  clause,  without  introducing  any  new  idea ;  as, 

1.  CA  prudent  man  is  respected.'    [Adjective  element — 

WORD.] 

2.  'A  man  of  prudence  is  respected.'    [Adjective  element 

— PHRASE.] 

3.  CA  man  who  is  prudent  is  respected.'    [Adjective  ele- 

ment— CLAUSE.] 

4.  '  Shrewd persons  are  to  be  found  in  all  nations.   '  Shrewd 

persons = persons  of  shrewdness  vr  gifted  with  shrewd- 
ness— persons  who  are  shrewd,  or  persons  icho  possess 
shrewdness.' 


SENTENCES.  141 

Exercise  41. 
Expand  the  WOKDS  printed  in  italics  into  PHRASES  and 

CLAUSES. 

1 .  Brave  soldiers  fell  at  Thermopylae. 

2.  The  grateful  mind  loves  to  consider  the  bounties  of  Providence. 

3.  Four-legged  animals  are  called  quadrupeds. 

4.  Great  generals  [of  great  ability]  were  common  in  the  time  of  Napoleon. 

5.  Virtuous  men  are  honored. 

7.  How  the  Predicate  may  be  Enlarged. 

376.  The  Predicate  may  be  enlarged — 

1.  By  an  adverb  ;  as,  'Leonidas  died  bravely? 

2.  By  a  phrase  ;  as, '  The  sun  rises  in  the  morning? 

3.  By  an  adverbial  clause  ;  '  The  lawyers  smiled  that  aft- 

ernoon when  he  hummed  in  court  an  old  love-tune?— 
Whittier. 

377.  The  adverbial  elements  used  in  enlarging  the  predi- 
cate may  be  classified  under  the  following  four  heads : 

(1.)  Those  relating  to  time,  or  the  when  word,  phrase,  or  clause. 

(2.) place,  or  the  where  word,  phrase,  or  clause. 

(3.) manner,  or  the  how  word,  phrase,  or  clause. 

(4.) cause,  or  the  why  word,  phrase,  or  clause. 

ILLUSTRATIONS — WOKDS. 

1.  'He  came  up  yesterday* — time. 

2.  '  He  went  there* — place. 

3.  '  He  walks  fast'* — manner. 

4.  '  Why  did  he  go  ?' — cause. 

ILLUSTRATIONS — PHRASES. 

\.('In  Spain  [place]  Columbus  waited  for  seven  years' 
[time]. 

2.  'Many  travelers  in  Africa  have  perished,  with  terrible 

suffering  [manner],  from  thirst*  [cause]. 

3.  c  Him  the  Almighty  power 

Hurled  headlong  [manner]  flaming  from  the  ethereal  sky, 
With  hideous  ruin  and  combustion  [manner],  down 
To  bottomless  perdition*  [place]. — Milton. 

ILLUSTRATIONS — CLAUSES. 

1.  '  Cromwell  matured  little  events  before  he  ventured  to 

govern  great  ones'*  [time]. 

2.  c  The  gardener  is  planting  the  shrubs  where  they  will 

have  the  most  shade*  [place]. 


142  ANALYSIS    AND    CONSTRUCTION. 

3.  'Fishes  have  no  voice   because  they  have  no  lungs1 
[cause]. 

Exercise  42. 

Enlarge  the  Predicate  by  an  Adverbial  Element — WORD, 
PHKASE,  or  CLAUSE. 

'Violets bloom' — [time].    'I  get  up' — [time].    'Liverpool 

-  is  situated' — [place].     '  Scholars  study' — [manner]. 

'  The  balloon  rises' — [cause],     '  Bise  early' — [cause]. 

378.  The  object  of  an  incomplete  verb  may  be  enlarged  in 
all  the  various  ways  in  which  the  subject  is  enlarged  (see 

1374). 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1.  'The  Esquimaux  inhabit  icy  Greenland'  [adjective]. 

2.  'The  English  conquered  Ireland,  the  Emerald  Isle'  [noun  in  apposition"]. 

3.  *  In  1864  we  celebrated  Shakspeards  three  hundredth  birthday'  [noun 

possessive"]. 

4.  '  The  battle  of  Marathon  secured  the  liberty  of  Greece'  [phrase~]. 

5.  *  Jefferson  proposed  the  decimal  notation  which  is  in  use  in  our  country' 

[clause']. 

8.  Expansion  of  the  Predicate. 

379.  Expansion  of  the  Predicate  is   accomplished  by  en- 
larging its  Adverbial  element  from  a  word  to  ajphrase,  or 
from  a  phrase  to  a  clause,  without  introducing  any  new  idea. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1.  'Jenny  Lind  sang  sweetly1  (adverbial  element — WORD). 

2.  'Jenny  Lind  sang  icith  sweetness*  (adverbial  element — 

PHRASE). 

3.  '  Jenny  Lind  sang  as  a  sweet  singer  does'* — (adverbial 

element — CLAUSE). 

4.  '  The  husbandman's  treasures  are  renewed  yearly?    '  Re- 

newed yearly1 -^  renewed  with  every  year1 ='  renewed 
as  each  recurring  year  comes  round? 

Exercise  43. 
Expand  the  words  printed  in  italics  into  PHRASES  and  CLAUSES. 

1.  He  came  upon  me  unawares  [notice]. 

2.  Bees  build  their  hives  ingeniously. 

3.  Do  not  speak  foolishly. 

4.  -Leonidas  acted  heroically. 

5.  Columbus  sailed  confidently  [sure  of  success]. 


SENTENCES,      / 

UHIVERSITT' 


CHAPTER  II. 

ANALYSIS    OF   SENTENCES. 

1.  The  Simple  Sentence  Analyzed. 
380.  In  analyzing  a  Simple  Sentence  proceed  as  follows  : 

I.  Name  or  write  the  subject  of  the  sentence. 

By  '  subject'  is  meant  the  grammatical  subject,  which  will  be  either  a 
noun-word  or  a  noun-phrase. 

®"  The  Articles  a  or  an  and  the  are  to  be  taken  as  a  part  of  the  subject. 

II.  Name  or  write  the  Predicate. 

The  Predicate  will  be  (1)  a  verb  alone,  or  (2)  an  Incomplete  verb  with 
its  complement. 

III.  Name  or  write  the  enlargement  or  enlargements  of  the 

subject. 

The  enlargement  of  the  subject  may  be  an  adjective,  a  possessive  noun 
or  pronoun,  a  noun  in  apposition,  or  an  adjective  phrase.  It  may  be  any 
one  or  all  of  these. 

IV.  Name  or  write  the  enlargement  or  enlargements  of  the 

Predicate. 

(a)  The  enlargements  of  the  predicate  that  consists  of  a  Complete  verb 
will  be  (1)  an  adverb  or  (2)  an  adverbial  phrase. 

(6)  The  enlargement  of  the  predicate  in  which  an  Incomplete  verb  is  used 
will  be  (1)  an  adverb  or  an  adverbial  phrase,  or  (2)  an  enlargement  of  the 
complement  by  one  or  more  of  the  four  forms  of  the  adjective  element. 

MODELS  OF  ANALYSIS. 

Example  1. 
'The  hardy  Laplander^  clad  in  skins,  boldly  defies  the  se- 

verity of  his  arctic  climate.' 
I.  SUBJECT  .....................  '  The  Laplander.' 

II.  PREDICATE  ..................  '  defies  the  severity.  ' 

III.  ENLARGEMENT  OF  SUBJECT.  .  .  'hardy'  (adjective),  and  'clad  in  skins' 

(adj.  phrase). 

IV.  ENLARGEMENT  OF  PREDICATE.  '  boldly,  '  adverbial  enlargement  of  verb, 

and  'of  his  arctic  climate,'  adjective 
enlargement  of  complement. 

Example  2. 

4  Night,  sable  goddess,  from  her  ebon  throve, 
In  rayless  majesty,  now  stretches  forth 
Her  leaden  sceptre  o'er  a  slumbering  world.'  —  Young^s 

Night  Thoughts. 
I.  SUBJECT  ....................  .  .  '  Night.' 

II.  PREDICATE  ...................  '  stretches  her  sceptre.' 


144  ANALYSIS   AND   CONSTRUCTION. 

III.  ENLARGEMENT  or  SUBJECT '  sable  goddess,'  adjective  element  with 

noun  in  apposition. 

IV.  ENLARGEMENT  or  PREDICATE.  '  fromher  ebon  throne, "in  rayless  maj- 

esty,' 'now,'  and  'o'er  a  prostrate 
world,'  adverbial  enlargements  of 
verb;  'leaden,' adjective  enlarge- 
ment of  complement  *  sceptre.' 

Example  3. 

*  Him  the  Almighty  Power 
Hurled  headlong  flaming  from  the  ethereal  sky, 
With  hideous  ruin  and  combustion,  down 
To  bottomless  perdition.' — Milton's  Paradise  Lost. 

(a)  Power SUBJECT  or  SENTENCE. 

(b)  Hurled  him ..Predicate  of  sentence. 

(c)  The  Almighty Adjective  enlargement  of  a. 

(d)  Headlong Adverbial  enlargement  of  6. 

(e)  Flaming Adjective  enlargement  of  'him,'  complement 

of  b. 

(/)  From  the  ethereal  sky. .  .Adverbial  phrase,  modifying  e. 
,  N   (With  hideous  ruin. ...)  Enlargement  of  pred.,  Adverbial  phrase  (man- 

^'  (And  combustion )       ner). 

(h)  Down Enlargement  of  pred.     Adverb  (direction). 

(i)  To  bottomless  perdition.  .Enlargement  of  pred.     Adv.  phrase  (place). 

Example  4. 

To  reach  Cathay,  famed  in  the  writings  of  Marco  Polo, 
fired  the  imagination  of  the  daring  navigator.' 

I.  SUBJECT To  reach  Cathay  (noun  phrase). 

II.  PREDICATE fired  the  imagination. 

III.  ENLARGEMENT  OF  SUBJECT.,  .famed  in  the  writings  of  Marco  Polo 

(adj.  phrase). 

IV.  ENLARGEMENT  OF  PREDICATE,  of  the  daring  navigator  (adj.  phrase). 

Example  5. 
c  My  mother  gave  me  a  letter  to  read.' 

I.  SUBJECT Mother. 

II.  PREDICATE gave  me  (indirect  comp.)  a  letter  (di- 
rect comp.). 

III.  ENLARGEMENT  OF  SUBJECT.,  .adj.  element  'my.' 

IV.  ENLARGEMENT  OF  PREDICATE. to  read  (adverbial  phrase). 

Example  6. 

'  Houses  (subject)  are  built  (predicate)  to  live  in'  (adverbial  enlarge- 
ment of  predicate). 

Example  7. 
'  How  are  you  ?' 

4  You'  (subject)  l  are'  (predicate)  '  how'  (adverbial  enlargement  of  pred- 
icate). 


THE    SIMPLE    SENTENCE.  145 

Exercise  44. 
Analyze  the  following  simple  Sentences. 

1.  The  plowman  homeward  plods  his  weary  way. 

2.  The  squirrel  eyes  askance  the  chestnuts  browning. 

3.  The  moon  threw  its  silvery  light  upon  the  rippling  waters  of  the  lake. 

4.  The  swift-winged  swallows  twittered  in  their  nests  built  under  the  eaves 

«f"the  old  barn. 

5.  Clad  in  a  robe  of  everlasting  snow,  Mt.  Everest  towers  above  all  other 

mountain  peaks  of  the  globe. 

6.  Reaching  the  summit  of  the  mountains  was  a  feat  hazardous  to  under- 

take. 

7.  In  the  hereafter  angels  may 

Roll  the  stones  from  its  grave  away. — Whittier. 

8.  Gayly  chattering  to  the  clattering 

Of  the  brown  nuts  downward  pattering 

Leap  the  squirrels  red  and  gray. —  Whittier. 

9.  The  great  work  laid  upon  his  twoscore  years  is  done. — Whittier. 

10.  There  is  a  rapture  on  the  lonely  shore. — Byron. 

11.  We  while  the  evening  hours  away 
Around  our  camp-fires  burning. 

12.  Stretched  round  the  fading,  flickering  light, 
We  watch  the  stars  above  us. 

13.  The  master  gave  his  scholars  a  lesson  to  learn. 

14.  Where  are  you  ? 

15.  Early  to  bed  and  early  to  rise,  makes  a  man  healthy,  wealthy,  and  wise. 

2.  Sentence-Building— The  Simple  Sentence. 

381.  In  the  following  exercises  in  sentence  building,  each 
element  to  be  included  in  the  sentence  is  stated  as  a  separate 
proposition. 

382.  The  various  propositions  are  to  be  built  up  into  one 
Simple  sentence,  introducing  into  it  only  such  words  as  are 
necessary  fully  and  clearly  to  express  all  the  ideas. 

i£ir  Remember  that  your  sentence  must  contain  only  one  Subject  and  one 
Predicate. 

383.  In  working  the  exercises,  use  the  following  method: 

I.  Write  the  Subject  on  a  line  by  itself. 
II.  Write  the  Verb  on  a  line  by  itself. 

III.  If  the  Verb  is  Incomplete,  write  the  Complement,  or  Complements,  on 

a  line  by  themselves. 

IV.  Write  the  Adjective  Elements  belonging  to  the  Subject  on  the  same 

line  as  the  Subject ;  and  the  Adjective  Elements  which  modify  the 
Noun-object  of  an  incomplete  Verb  on  the  same  line  as  its  Predicate. 
V.  Write  each  Adverb  or  Adverbial  Phrase  on  a  line  by  itself. 

G 


146  ANALYSIS   AND   CONSTRUCTION. 

384.  The  natural  order  of  the  elements  in  a  simple  English 
sentence  is  so  plain  that  it  requires  no  explanation.    The  only 
difficulty  is  in  the  right  placing  of  the  adverbial  elements. 

385.  RULE. — When  you  have  a  number  of  Adverbs,  or  of  ad- 
verbial phrases,  do  not  string  them  together  at  the  tail  end  of 
a  sentence,  but  distribute  them  in  such  a  way  that  they  will  be 
grouped  around  the  principal  words. 

NOTE. — The  symboK  stands  for  enlargement ;  P.  stands  for  Predicate; 
S.  stands  for  subject;  Comp.  for  complement. 

Punctuating  the  Simple  Sentence. 

386.  Punctuation  is  indicating  by  means  of  points  what 
parts -of  a  sentence  are  to  be  conjoined,  and  what  parts  sepa- 
rated in  meaning. 

RULE  I.  When  the  elements  stand  in  their  natural  order — Subject,  Pred- 
icate, and  Object — no  point  is  required  except  a  period  at  the  close  of  the 
sentence ;  as, '  TJie  morning  air  is  laden  with  the  perfume  of  the  flowers. ' 

RULE  II.  An  adverbial  phrase  at  the  beginning  of  a  sentence  is  gener- 
ally followed  by  a  comma ;  as, '  By  night,  an  atheist  half  believes  there  is  a 
God.' 

RULE  III.  Appositional  words  and  phrases  following  their  nouns  are 
generally  inclosed  by  commas ;  as, '  Thackeray,  the  author  of  Vanity  Fair, 
died  in  1863.' 

RULE  IV.  Words  and  phrases  of  the  same  order  in  a  series,  taken  indi- 
vidually or  in  pairs,  require  to  be  separated  by  commas.  'A  blending  of 
all  beauties ;  streams  and  dells,  fruit,  foliage,  crag,  wood,  corn-field,  vine.' 
'  From  grave  to  gay,  from  lively  to  severe. ' 

RULE  V.  Independent  nouns  are  fenced  off  by  the  comma.  i  Sweet  Au- 
burn, loveliest  village  of  the  plain.' 

MODELS  OF  SYNTHESIS. 
Example  1. 

1.  The  Propositions. 

(a)  Washington  gained  a  victory. 

(b)  Washington  was  the  commander-in-chief  of  the  American  army  (adj. 

<pfS.). 

(c)  The  victory  was  a  decisive  one  (adj.  <  of  object). 

(d)  It  was  gained  over  the  British  (adverbial  phrase  <of  P.). 

(e)  The  battle  was  fought  at  Trenton  (adverbial  phrase). 

(/)  Trenton  is  in  the  State  of  New  Jersey  (adverbial  phrase  <of  e). 
(#)  This  took  place  in  1776  (adverb,  phrase  <  of  P.). 

2.  The  Elements. 

Subject Washington,  the  commander-in-chief  of  the  American 

army. 
Verb Gained. 


THE    SIMPLE    SENTENCE.  147 

Complement A  victory. .  .decisive  (adj.). 

Adv.  Phrase..  1.  Over  the  British. 

2.  At  Trenton,  in  the  State  of  New  Jersey. 

3.  In  1776. 

387.  As  there  are  three  adverbial  phrases  here,  we  must 
follow  the  direction  for  their  arrangement.  We  therefore 
begin  with  the  adverbial  phrase  of  time ;  and  get — 

3.  The  Sentence.  'In  1776,  Washington,  the  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  American  army,  gained  a  decisive  vic- 
tory over  the  British,  at  Trenton,  in  the  State  of  New 
Jersey.' 

Example  2. 

1.  The  Propositions. 

(a)  Sir  William  Herschel  is  another  example. 

(6)  Sir  William  Herschel  was  an  astronomer  (adj.  <  of  S.). 

(c)  He  is  an  eminent  example  (adj.  <  of  S.). 

(d)  He  is  an  eminent  example  of  a  man  raising  himself  from  humble  life 

by  perseverance  (adv.<  of  comp.). 

2.  The  Sentence.    '  Sir  William  Herschel,  the  astronomer,  is 

another  eminent  example  of  a  man  raising  himself 
from  humble  life.' 

Example  3. 

1.  The  Propositions. 

(a)  A  priest  made  his  appearance. 
(6)  The  priest  was  fat  (adj.  <  of  S.). 

(c)  He  was  an  Italian  (adj.  <  of  S.). 

(d)  He  appeared  on  deck  (adv.  phrase  <of  P.). 

(e)  It  was  soon  after  breakfast  (adv.  <  of  P.). 

2.  The  /Sentence.    '  Soon  after  breakfast,  a  fat  Italian  priest 

made  his  appearance  on  deck.' 

Example  4. 

1.  The  Propositions. 

(a)  The  caterpillar  seeks  out  some  place. 
(6)  This  is  a  place  of  concealment  (adj.  <  of  object), 
(c)  It  does  so  after  a  short  period  (ad v.<  of  P.). 
(c?)  It  has  several  times  changed  its  skin  (adj.  phrase  <  of  S.). 
(e)  It  has  at  length  grown  to  its  full  size  (adj.  phrase  <  of  S.). 
(y)  It  secretes  itself  in  some  hole  in  the  wall  (<  of  S.). 
(#)  Or  it  buries  itself  under  the  surface  of  the  ground  (<  of  S.). 
(A)  Or  sometimes  only  attaches  itself  by  a  silken  web  to  the  under  side  of 
a  leaf  «  of  S.). 

2.  The  Sentence.    '  Having  several  times  changed  its  sl^in, 

and  having  at  length  grown  to  its  full  size,  the  cater- 


148  ANALYSIS   AND    CONSTRUCTION. 

pillar,  after  a  short  period,  seeks  out  some  place  of 
concealment,  secreting  itself  in  some  hole  in  the  wall, 
burying  itself  under  the  surface  of  the  ground,  or 
sometimes  only  attaching  itself  by  a  silken  web  to 
the  under  side  of  a  leaf.'  • 

Exercise  45. 
Condense  the  following  Propositions  into  SIMPLE  SENTENCES. 

1.  (a)  Steel  is  made. 

(6)  It  is  made  by  heating  small  bars  of  iron  with  charcoal, 
(c)  Or  by  heating  them  with  bone  and  iron  shavings, 
(c/)  Or  with  other  inflammable  substances. 

2.  (a)  The  Russians  burned  Moscow. 

(b)  The  French  were  compelled  to  leave  the  city. 

3.  (a)  I  saw  the  Queen  of  France. 

(b)  It  is  now  sixteen  or  seventeen  years  since  I  saw  her. 

(c)  She  was  then  the  Dauphiness. 
(c?)  I  saw  her  at  Versailles. 

4.  (a)  Leonidas  sent  away  all  but  three  hundred  men. 

(6)  He  resolved  to  defend  the  pass  with  this  devoted  band. 

5.  (a)  The  Highlanders  were  composed  of  a  number  of  tribes. 
(6)  These  tribes  were  called  clans. 

(c)  Each  clan  bore  a  different  name. 

(o?)  Each  clan  lived  upon  the  lands  of  a  different  chieftain. 

6.  (a)  Alfred  disguised  himself  as  a  page. 

(6)  He  obtained  access  to  the  Danish  camp. 

7.  (a)  The  organ  is  the  most  wonderful. 

(6)  It  is  the  organ  of  touch  that  is  spoken  of. 

(c)  It  is  the  most  wonderful  of  the  senses. 

(d)  It  is  so  in  many  respects. 

8.  (a)  A  frog  one  day  saw  an  ox  graze  in  a  meadow. 

(b)  It  imagined  it  could  make  itself  as  large  as  that  animal. 

9.  (a)  A  balloon  is  a  bag. 

(b)  It  is  a  thin  bag. 

(c)  It  is  a  tight  bag. 

(c?)  It  is  made  of  varnished  silk. 

(e)  It  is  generally  shaped  like  a  globe. 

(/)  It  is  filled  with  a  fluid  lighter  than  common  air. 

10.  (a)  Peter  III.  reigned  but  a  few  months. 

(6)  Peter  was  deposed  by  a  conspiracy  of  Russian  nobles. 

(c)  This  conspiracy  was  headed  by  his  own  wife,  Catharine. 

(d)  Catharine  was  a  German  by  birth. 

(e)  Catharine  was  a  woman  of  bold  and  unscrupulous  character. 

11.  (a)  The  Federalists  secured  the  election  of  John  Adams. 
(6)  Washington  refused  to  be  elected  President. 

(c)  Adams  was  a  leading  member  of  the  Federalist  party, 
(c?)  He  was  already  distinguished  by  his  political  services  during  the 
Revolution. 


THE   COMPLEX   SENTENCE.  149 


CHAPTER  III. 

THE    COMPLEX   SENTENCE. 

1.  The  Complex  Sentence  Analyzed. 

388.  The  Complex  Sentence  consists  of  a  Principal  Propo- 
sition and  one  or  more  Dependent  Propositions. 

389.  A  simple  sentence  may  be  made  complex  by  expand- 
ing one  of  its  elements  into  a  clause. 

390.  The  Simple  Sentence  and  the  Complex  Sentence  agree 
in  one  respect,  that  each  contains  one,  and  only  one,  leading 
assertion ;  they  differ  in  this  respect,  that  the  complex  sen- 
tence contains,  in  addition  to  this  leading  assertion,  a  subordi- 
nate one  made  by  means  of  a  clause. 

The  complete  thought  expressed  by  means  of  a  Complex  sentence  does 
not  necessarily  differ  from  that  expressed  by  a  Simple  sentence ;  as, 
SIMPLE  SENTENCE 'At  the  close  of  the  war  (phrase),  Washington  retired 

to  Mount  Vernon.' 
COMPLEX  SENTENCE.. lWhen  the  war  closed  (clause), Washington  retired 

to  Mount  Vernon. ' 

391.  Clauses  are  of  three  kinds,  and  are  named  according 
to  the  functions  they  perform  in  the  sentence. 

(1.)  Noun  clauses,  so  called  because  they  stand  as  nouns. 
The  noun-clause  may  be — 

1.  The  subject  of  a  verb;  as,1  That  you  can  not  perform  the  task  is  evident.' 

2.  The  object  of  a  verb ;  as,4 1  see  that  you  are  exhausted.1 

NOTE. — The  noun-clause  is  generally  introduced  by  the  conjunction  that. 
(2.)  Adjective  clauses,  so  called  because  they  perform  the 
functions  of  an  adjective;  as, 'You  will  never  see  the  fruit 
of  the  trees  which  you  are  planting -.' 

The  adjective  clause  may  qualify  the  subject  or  the  object,  and  it  is  gen- 
erally connected  with  the  principal  proposition  by  a  relative  pronoun  or  a 
relative  adverb,  equivalent  to  the  relative  pronoun  and  the  preposition  gov- 
erning it.  The  relative  may  sometimes,  however,  be  understood. 

(3.)  Adverbial  clauses,  so  called  because  they  perform  the 
functions  of  an  adverb.  They  qualify  verbs,  adjectives,  or 
adverbs. 

The  several  kinds  of  adverbial  clauses  are — 

1.  Time — as,  ;I  shall  see  you  before  you  depart. ,' 

2.  Place — as, 'I  found  him  where  I  had  left  him.1' 

3.  Manner—  as, '  The  gardener  works  as  he  pleases.' 


150  ANALYSIS   AND   CONSTRUCTION. 

4.  Comparison  or  degree — as,4  Gold  is  more  precious  than  silver.1 

5.  Cause — as, 'I  was  scolded  because  I  had  committed  a  mistake. 

6.  Effect — as,'  The  cold  was  so  intense  that  the  mercury  froze.' 

7.  Condition — as,4 1  will  not  let  thee  go  unless  thou  bless  me.' 

8.  Concession — as,' Though  I entreated  him  with  tears,  he  would  not  grant 

my  request.' 

9.  Purpose — as,  *  The  gardener  prunes  the  tree  that  it  may  yield  better  fruit.'' 

392.  Some  of  these  conjunctions  may  introduce  a  noun 
clause  or  an  adjective  clause  as  well  as  an  adverbial  clause; 
the  nature  and  relationship  of  the  various  clauses  must  there- 
fore be  carefully  examined  in  order  to  determine  whether 
the  clause  has  the  function  of  a  noun,  of  an  adjective,  or  of  an 
adverb. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1.  c  I  will  tell  you  where  to  find  it? 

Here  the  clause  '  where  to  find  it'  is  an  objective  complement  of  tell;  it 
must  therefore  be  a  noun. 

2.  c  I  will  show  you  the  spot  where  he  was  standing? 
Here  the  clause  '  where  he  was  standing'  is  a  complement  of  the  noun 

spot ;  it  must  therefore  be  an  adjective. 

3.  '  They  were  still  lying  where  they  fell? 

Here  the  clause  '  where  they  fell'  is  a  complement  of  the  verb  were  lying; 
it  must  therefore  be  an  adverb. 

393.  The  different  kinds  of  clauses  in  Complex  sentences 
can  be  distinguished  by  the  connectives  that  introduce  them. 
The  following  classified  table  of  connectives  is  given  to  aid 
the  pupil  in  distinguishing  a  clause  from  the  principal  mem- 
bers of  a  sentence. 

Introducing,  ( 1.  Fact — that  what,  why. 

I.  NOUN  Clauses,  <  2.  Alternative — whether. .  .or. 

Used  as  subject  or  object.  ( 

11.  Person — who,  that. 
2.  Thing — which,  that. 
3.  PlacJUvhere,  wherein. 
4.  Time — when,  whereat. 

I.  PLACE.    Where,  whether,  whence. 
II.  TIME.      When,  while,  whenever,  till,  until. 
'  1.  Likeness — as,  as  if. 

TTT       Tl/r. i 

III.  Adverbial 
Clause  of 


III.  MANNER.  <  2.  Comparison— as  (much)  as,  than. 
3.  Effect— (so)  that. 
1.  Reason — because,  since,  for. 


2.  Purpose — (in  order)  that,  lest. 
Condition — if,  unless. 
Concession — though. 


TV    n  )  z-  r urpose — (iu  uruer;  i 

I\ .  CAUSE.      <  3  co^o^if  uniess. 

u 


THE  COMPLEX  SENTENCE.  151 

394.  In  analyzing  a  complex  sentence,  pick  out  first  the 
subject  and  the  predicate  of  the  leading  or  most  important 
statements:  these  make  the  backbone  of  the  sentence.    Next 
select  the  subordinate  statement  or  statements,  introduced 
in  all  cases  by  some  one  of  the  connectives  given  in  the  table 
above. 

395.  Or,  reverse  the  above  process  by  first  picking  out  the 
clauses.     This  can  be  readily  done,  since  they  always  imme- 
diately follow  some  one  of  the  connectives  given  above.    All 
that  is  left  in  a  simple  sentence,  or  in  any  single  member  of  a 
compound  sentence,  will  belong  to  the  principal  proposition. 

Directions  for  the  Analysis  of  Complex  Sentences. 

I.  Name  or  write  the  subject  of  the  leading  member. 
II.  Name  or  write  the  leading  predicate. 

III.  Name  or  write  the  enlargement  of  the  subject. 

IV.  Name  or  write  the  enlargement  of  the  predicate. 

V.  Name  or  write  the  subject  of  the  dependent  proposition. 
VI.  Name  or  write  the  predicate  of  the  dependent  proposition. 
VII.  Name  or  write  the  enlargement  of  its  subject. 

VIII.  Name  or  write  the  enlargements  of  its  predicate  (verb  and  comple- 
plement). 

MODEL  OF  ANALYSIS. 

Example  1. 

<  Washington,  who  beheld  all  day,  with  unspeakable  an- 
guish, the  useless  slaughter  of  his  brave  troops,  skill- 
fully withdrew  his  army,  which  was  dispirited  by  de- 
feat, from  Long  Island  to  New  York,  at  night,  under 
cover  of  a  dense  fog.' 

1 .  Washington SUBJECT. 

2.  Withdrew  his  army PREDICATE. 

3.  Who  beheld  all  day,  with  unspeakable  anguish,  the  useless  slaughter  of 

his  brave  troops  (adj.  clause  <of  S.). 

4.  (a)  Which  was  dispirited  by  defeat  (adj.  clause  <of  comp.  of  P.). 
4.  (6)  From  Long  Island  to  New  York  (adv.  phrase  <of  P.). 

4.  (c)  At  night  (adv.  phrase  <of  P.). 

4.  (c?)  Under  cover  of  a  dense  fog  (adv.  phrase  <of  P.). 

First  Clause. 

1.  Who,  connective  and  S. 

2.  Beheld  the  slaughter,  predicate. 

3.  (a)  All  day  (adv.  phrase  <of  P.). 

3.  (b}  With  unspeakable  anguish  (adv.  phrase  <of  P.). 

3.  (c)  Useless  (adj.  <of  object). 

3.  (d)  Of  his  troops  (adj.  <  of  Comp.  of  P.). 


152  ANALYSIS   AND   CONSTRUCTION. 

Second  Clause. 

1.  Which Subject  and  connective. 

2.  Was  dispirited Predicate. 

3.  By  defeat  (adv.  phrase  <of  P.). 

Example  2. 
*  The  ocean  is  as  deep  as  the  mountains  are  high.' 

1.  The  ocean  (S.). 

2.  Is  deep  (P.). 

3.  As (adverbial  <of  comp.  of  P.). 

4.  As  the  mountains  are  high  (dependent  proposition,  adverbial  <of  P.). 

Analysis  of  Dependent  Proposition. 

1.  Mountains  (S.). 

2.  Are  high  (P.). 

3.  As,  connective  of  clause. 

Example  3. 

396.  The  following  is  an  example  of  a  peculiar  type  of  the 
Complex  Sentence: 

'  That  you  have  wronged  me  [clause-subject]  doth  appear 
[P.]  in  this'  [adverbial  <of  P.]. 

NOTE. — In  this  sentence  the  sense  shows  that  the  subject  of  the  princi- 
pal member,  or  the  main  statement,  is  the  entire  clause  *  That  you  have 
wronged  me.'  As  the  clause  is  usually  a  subordinate  part  of  either  the 
subject  or  the  predicate  of  a  complex  sentence,  there  seems  to  be  an  ap- 
parent contradiction  in  making  it  the  subject  of  the  main  statement ;  but 
the  construction  is  similar  to  that  by  which  a  phrase,  usually  subordinate, 
sometimes  becomes  itself  the  subject  of  a  sentence,  or  the  complement  of 
the  predicate. 

Example  4. 

397.  Another  example  of  the  same  type  is  the  following: 

*  We  must  not  think  that  the  life  of  a  man  begins  when 

he  can  feed  himself.' 

EXPLANATION. — Here  the  complement  of  the  transitive  verb  'must 
think'  is  '  that  the  life  of  man  begins  when  he  can  feed  himself.' 

Example  5. 

*  It  is  believed  that  the  moon  is  not  inhabited.' 
EXPLANATION. — Here  the  real  subject  is  the  clause  '  that  the  moon  is 

not  inhabited ;'  but  it  is  represented  by  the  pronoun  '  it'  in  its  peculiar  idi- 
omatic use  (see  Tf  48). 

Example  6. 
'  I  wish  to  know  where  you  live.' 

1. 1  (S.). 

2.  Wish  to  know  (P.). 

3.  Where  you  live  (noun-clause,  object  of  '  know'). 


THE  COMPLEX  SENTENCE.  153 

Analysis  of  3. 
(l)'You'(S.). 

(2)  live  (P.). 

(3)  where  (adv.  < of  P.). 

Example  7. 

'  He  is  proud  that  he  is  a  soldier.' 

EXPLANATION. — Here  the  clause  'that  he  is  a  soldier'  expresses  the 
reason,  the  why  of  his  being  proud,  and  is  therefore  an  adverbial  clause 
modifying  the  predicate  'is  proud.' 

Example  8. 
'Tell  me  how  you  are.' 

1 .  Subject — '  You'  (understood). 

2.  Predicate — 'tell  how  you  are'  ('how  you  are,'  noun-clause,  comple- 

ment of  transitive  verb  tell). 

3.  (to)  me  (indirect  comp.  of  tell). 

Example  9. 

;A  reader  unacquainted  with  the  real  nature  of  a  classical 
education  will  probably  undervalue  it  when  he  sees 
that  so  large  a  portion  of  time  is  devoted  to  the 
study  of  a  few  ancient  authors,  whose  works  seem  to 
have  no  direct  bearing  on  the  studies  and  duties  of 
our  own  generation.' 

.  A  reader  unacquainted  with  the  real  1 

nature  of  a  classical  education  >  PRINCIPAL  PROPOSITION. 
will  probably  undervalue  it ) 

2.  A  reader PRINCIPAL  SUBJECT. 

3.  Unacquainted  with  the  real  nature )  Adjective  phrase,  enlargement  of 

of  a  classical  education j      subject. 

4.  Will  undervalue  it PRINCIPAL  PREDICATE. 

5.  Probably Adverbial  enlargement  of  pred. 

n   ,TT,       ,  x.       ( Dependent  proposition,  an  adverb- 

6.  When  he  sees  that generat.on  |      .£  cIausePqu^fving 'pl.ed. 

Analysis  of  Dependent  Proposition. 

1.  He SUBJECT. 

2.  Sees PREDICATE. 

3.  That  so  large  a  portion  of  time  is ' 

devoted  to  the  study  of  a  few 


ancient  authors  [clause  a],  whose 
works  seem  to  have  no  direct  bear- 


Complement  of  incomplete  verb 


4  sees. 


ing  on  the  studies  and  duties  of 
our  own  generation  [clause  b] . . .  , 

1.  Portion Subject  of  clause  a. 

2   Of  time  I  adjective  phrase  qualifying  f  por- 

(      tion.' 

3.  Is  devoted  to authors,  .predicate  of  clause  a. 

G2 


154 


ANALYSIS   AND  •CONSTRUCTION. 


4.  To  the  study  of  a  few  ancient  au-  )  indirect   complement   of  i  is   de- 

" 


thors 


voted.  ' 


of  our  own  generation  ..........  ) 

6.  Works  ..............................  subject  of  clause  b. 

7.  Seem  to  have  no  bearing  .............  predicate  of  b. 

8.  On  the  studies  and  duties  of  our  )  adverbial  phrase  modifying  predi- 

own  generation  .................  j      cate  of  b. 

Example  10. 
395.  A  convenient  mode  of  tabular  analysis  is  given  in  the 


following  model : 


TABULAR  ANALYSIS. 


Propositions. 

Kinds. 

Subject. 

PREDICATE. 

Verb. 

Complement. 

Enlargement. 

I.  Before  Time 
had  touched  his 
hair  with  silver, 

Adverbial 
Clause  to 
II. 

Time 

had 
touched 

his  hair 

with  silver. 

II.  He  had  often 
gazed  with  wist- 
ful fondness  to- 
ward that  friend- 
ly shore, 

Principal 
Proposi- 
tion. 

He 

had  gazed 

1.  often  (Time}. 
2.  with  wistful 
fondness  (Man- 
ner). 
3.  toward  that 
friendly  shore 
(Place). 

III.  On  ivhich 
Puritan  huts 
were  already  be- 
ginning to  cluster 
under  the  spread- 
ing shade  of  hick- 
ory and  maple. 

Adjective 
Clause  to 
II. 

Puritan 
huts 

were  be- 
ginning 

to  cluster 

1.  already  ««/ 
Verb). 
2.  under  the 
spreading  shade 
of  hickory  and 
maple   «o/ 
Ob).). 

Exercise  49. 
A. 

Analyze  the  following  COMPLEX  Sentences : 

1.  Whom  the  gods  love  die  young  was  said  of  you. — Byron. 

2.  Beware  when  the  great  gods  let  loose  a  thinker  on  this  planet. — Em- 
erson. 

3.  If  we  confine  our  view  to  the  globe  we  inhabit,  it  must  be  allowed  that 
chemistry  and  geology  are  the  two  sciences  which  not  only  offer  the  fairest 
promise,  but  already  contain  the  largest  generalizations. — Buckle's  History 
of  Civilization. 

4.  In  the  latter  part  of  his  life,  when  impressed  with  the  sublime  events 
brought  about  through  his  agency,  Columbus  looked  back  upon  his  career 
with  a  sublime  and  superstitious  feeling.     He  attributed  his  early  and  irre- 
sistible inclination  for  the  sea  to  an  impulse  from  the  Deity  preparing  him  for 
the  high  decrees  he  was  chosen  to  accomplish. — Washington  Irving. 

5.  Mrs.  Squeers  stood  at  one  of  the  desks,  presiding  over  an  immense  basin 


THE    COMPLEX   SENTENCE.  155 

of  brimstone  and  treacle,  of  which  delicious  compound  she  administered  a 
large  instalment  to  each  boy  in  succession,  using  for  the  purpose  a  common 
wooden  spoon,  which  might  have  been  originally  manufactured  for  some 
gigantic  top,  and  which  widened  every  young  gentleman's  mouth  consider- 
ably, they  being  all  obliged,  under  heavy  corporal  penalties^to  take  in  the 
whole  of  the  bowl  at  a  gasp. — Dickens  s  Nicholas  Nickleby. 

6.  When  public  bodies  are  to  be  addressed  on  momentous  occasions,  when 
great  interests  are  at  stake,  and  strong  passions  excited,  nothing  is  valuable 
in  speech  further  than  it  is  connected  with  high  intellectual  and  moral  endow- 
ments.— Daniel  Webster. 

7.  We  know  that  if  we  could  cause  this  structure  to  ascend,  not  only  till  it 
reached  the  skies,  but  till  it  pierced  them,  its  broad  surfaces  could  still  con- 
tain but  part  of  that  which,  in  an  age  of  knowledge,  hath  already  been  spread 
over  the  earth,  and  which  history  charges  itself  with  making  known  to  all  fu- 
ture times. — Daniel  Webster. 

8.  A  man  who,  exposed  to  all  the  influences  of  such  a  state  of  society  as 
that  in  which  we  live,  is  yet  afraid  of  exposing  himself  to  the  influence  of  a 
few  Greek  or  Latin  verses,  acts,  we  think,  much  like  the  felon  who  begged  the 
sheriffs  to  let  him  have  an  umbrella  held  over  his  head  from  the  door  of  New- 
gate to  the  gallows,  because  it  was  a  drizzling  morning,  and  he  was  apt  to 
take  cold. — Macaulay. 

9.  If  the  feudal  government  was  so  little  favorable  to  the  true  liberty  even 
of  the  military  vassal,  it  was  still  more  destructive  of  the  independence  and 
security  of  the  other  members  of  the  state,  or  what,  in  a  proper  sense,  we  call 
the  people. — Hume. 

10.  I  covered  it  with  skins,  the  hair  upwards,  so  that  it  cast  off  the  rain  like 
a  pent-house,  and  kept  off  the  sun  so  effectually  that  I  could  walk  out  in  the 
hottest  of  the  weather  with  greater  advantage  than  I  could  before  in  the  cool- 
est, and  when  I  had  no  need  of  it  I  could  close  it  and  carry  it  under  my  arm. 
— Defoe's  Robinson  Crusoe. 

11.  You  have  a  very  bad  opinion  indeed  of  the  present  state  of  literature, 
and  of  literary  men,  if  you  fancy  that  any  one  of  us  would  hesitate  to  stick  a 
knife  into  his  neighbor  penman  if  the  latter's  death  could  do  the  state  any 
service. — Thackeray's  Book  of  Snobs. 

12.  But  when  the  sun  broke  from  the  underground, 
Then  those  two  brethren,  slowly,  with  bent  brows, 
Accompanying  the  sad  chariot-bier, 

Passed  like  a  shadow  through  the  field  that  shone 

Full  summer,  to  that  stream  whereon  the  barge 

Palled  all  its  length  in  blackest  samite  lay. — Tennysoris  Elaine. 

13.  If  I  could  stand  for  one  moment  upon  one  of  your  high  mountain  tops, 
far  above  all  the  kingdoms  of  the  civilized  world,  and  there  might  see,  com- 
ing up,  one  after  another,  the  bravest  and  wisest  of  the  ancient  warriors,  and 
statesmen,  and  kings,  and  monarchs,  and  priests  ;  and  if,  as  they  came  up,  I 
might  be  permitted  to  ask  from  them  an  expression  of  opinion  upon  such  a 
case  as  this,  with  a  common  voice,  and  in  thunder  tones,  reverberating  through 
a  thousand  valleys,  and  echoing  down  the  ages,  they  would  cry,  '  LIBERTY, 
FREEDOM,  THE  UNIVERSAL  BROTHERHOOD  OF  MAN!'—  Colonel  Baker. 

14.  When,  in  the  course  of  human  events,  it  becomes  necessary  for  one 


156  ANALYSIS   AND   CONSTRUCTION. 

people  to  dissolve  the  political  bands  which  have  connected  them  with  anoth- 
er, and  to  assume,  among  the  powers  of  the  earth,  the  separate  and  equal  sta- 
tion to  which  the  laws  of  nature  and  of  nature's  God  entitle  them,  a  decent 
respect  to  the  opinions  of  mankind  requires  that  they  should  declare  the  causes 
which  impel  them  to  the  separation. — Declaration  of  Independence. 

B. 

Change  the  following  INVESTED  COMPLEX  Sentences  into  the 

KEGULAK    OEDER  : 

1.  Whilst  light  and  colors  rise  and  fly, 

Lives  Newton's  deathless  memory.  — Mitford. 

2.  In  man  or  woman,  but  far  most  in  man, 
And  most  of  all  in  man  that  ministers 
And  serves  the  altar,  in  my  soul  I  loathe 
All  affectation. — Cowper. 

3.  If  Hannibal  had  not  wintered  at  Capua,  by  which  circumstance  his  troops 

were  enervated,  but,  on  the  contrary,  after  the  battle  of  Cannae,  had 
proceeded  to  Rome,  it  is  not  improbable  that  the  great  city  would  have 
fallen. — Gibbon. 

4.  Time  but  this  impression  deeper  makes, 

As  streams  their  channels  deeper  wear. — Burns. 

2.  Sentence-Building— The  Complex  Sentence. 

398.  In  combining  Propositions  into  a  Complex  Sentence, 
observe  the  following  directions : 

1.  You  must  take  care  to  make  clauses  stand  as  close  as 

possible  to  the  words  they  qualify. 

2.  An  adjective  clause  must  follow  the  noun  which  it 

qualifies. 

3.  An  adverbial  clause  generally  follows  the  word  it  mod- 

ifies; but  it  is  often  more  elegant  to  make  certain 
adverbial  clauses — especially  those  of  time,  place, 
concession,  condition — precede  the  word  they  qual- 

ify- 

4.  A  noun-clause  used  as  subject  must  generally  stand  be- 

fore the  verb ;  used  as  the  complement  of  a  transi- 
tive verb,  after  it. 

399.  GENERAL  RULE. — Arrange  the  clauses  so  as  to  bring 
ont  most  clearly  and  unmistakably  the  complete  sense  of  the 
sentence. 

Punctuation  of  Complex  Sentences. 

400.  RULE  I. — In  complex  sentences,  the  clauses  are  gen- 
erally separated  from  the  principal  member  and  from  one 
another  by  commas. 


THE  COMPLEX  SENTENCE. 


157 


RULE  II. — If,  however,  one  clause  stands  in  very  close  con- 
nection with  another,  no  comma  is  necessary. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

4  When  he  was  a  boy,  Fj-anklin,  who  afterward  became  a 
distinguished  statesman  and  philosopher,  learnt  his 
trade  in  the  printing-office  of  his  brother,  who  pub- 
lished a  paper  in  Boston.' 

EXPLANATION. — The  clause/  When  he  was  a  boy,'  is  separated  from  the 
principal  proposition,  'Franklin  learnt  his  trade,'  by  a  COMMA.  In  like 
manner,  the  comma  is  used  to  separate  the  clause  '  who  afterward  became 
a  distinguished  philosopher'  from  the  subject  '  Franklin, '  for  the  reason  that 
this  clause  intervenes  between  the  principal  subject, 'Franklin,'  and  the 
principal  predicate, '  learnt  his  trade. '  So  the  clause  '  who  published  a  pa- 
per,' etc.,  is  separated  by  a  comma  from  the  antecedent  of  who,  namely, 
4  brother. ' 

MODEL  OF  SYNTHESIS. 

Example  1. 
I.  Propositions  to  be  combined  into  a  Complex  Sentence. 

1.  Benjamin  Franklin  learnt  his  trade  (principal  proposition). 

2.  He  did  this  when  he  was  a  boy  (adv.  clause  <of  P.). 

3.  He  afterwards  became  a  distinguished  statesman  and  philosopher  (adj. 

clause  <of  S.)« 

4.  He  learnt  his  trade  in  his  brother's  printing-office  (adv.  clause  <of  P.). 

5.  His  brother  published  a  paper  in  Boston  (adj.  clause  <of  brother}. 

II.  These  Propositions  may  be  conveniently  expressed  on 
the  blackboard  by  means  of  the  following  diagram: 

SUBORDNATE 
PROPOSITIONS. 
He  did  this  when 
he  was  a  boy. 

He  afterwards  be- 
came a  distinguished 
statesman  and  phi- 
losopher. 

He  learned  his 
trade  in  the  printing- 
office  of  his  brother. 

His  brother  pub- 
lished a  paper  in 
Boston. 

III.  Propositions  Combined. 

4  When  he  was  a  boy,  Franklin,  who  afterward  became  a 
distinguished  statesman  and  philosopher,  learnt  his 


PRINCIPAL 
PROPOSITION. 


Franklin 
learnt  his 
trade. 


158 


ANALYSIS   AND    CONSTRUCTION. 


trade  in  the  printing-office  of  his  brother,  who  pub- 
lished a  paper  in  Boston.' 
NOTE. — The  method  of  punctuating  this  sentence  is  explained  p.  157. 

401.  In  framing  the  diagram,  write  the  principal  proposi- 
tion on  the  left;  the  subordinate  propositions  on  the  right. 
When  a  clause  qualifies  some  word  in  the  principal  member, 
it  is  to  be  jpined  to  the  principal  member  by  a  straight  line, 
on  which  the  nature  of  the  clause  is  indicated.  If  a  word  in 
one  of  the  dependent  propositions  is  enlarged  by  another 
clause,  draw  a  line  (on  which  you  will  indicate  the  nature  of 
the  clause)  from  the  latter  to  the  former,  and  not  to  the  line 
running  from  the  principal  member. 

The  sign  -f-  may  be  used  to  signify  and.     The  sign  —  is  used  to  signify 
or.     The  sign  -f-  may  be  used  to  signify  but. 


PRINCIPAL 
PROPOSITION. 


Example  2. 


SUBORDINATE 
PROPOSITIONS. 
They  admire  him 
very  much. 

They  imitate  him 
in  every  thing. 


Young  lads 
often  fix  on 
some  older 
boy. 

Sentence  Constructed. 

'Young  lads  often  fix  on  some  older  boy  whom  they  ad- 
mire very  much,  and  whom  they  imitate  in  every  thing.' 

NOTE. — The  first  clause  is  too  closely  connected  with  the  principal  mem- 
ber to  take  the  comma. 


PRINCIPAL 
PROPOSITIONS. 

Water  ex- 
pands into 
steam. 


Example  3. 


SUBORDINATE 
PROPOSITIONS. 
Water  is  heated. 

Steam  endeavors 
to  force  its  way  out 
of  the  vessel. 

It  is  confined  in 
the  vessel. 

Sentence  Constructed. 

'  Water  that  is  heated  expands  into  steam,  which  endeav- 
ors to  force  its  way  out  of  the  vessel  in  which  it  is  con- 
fined. 

NOTE. — In  this  sentence,  the  clause  'that  is  heated' is  too  closely  joined 
to  'water'  to  be  separated  from  it  by  a  comma.  The  relative  clause  i  which 
endeavors,'  etc.,  is,  however,  separated  by  a  comma.  The  last  clause,  'in 
which  it  is  confined, '  is  too  closely  united  with  the  word  vessel,  in  the  pre- 
vious-phrase, to  admit  of  separation. 


THE    COMPLEX   SENTENCE. 


159 


(a)  The 
vast  ma- 
chines 
struck  the 
Indians 
with  such 
terror. 


PRINCIPAL  Example  4.  SUBORDINATE 

PROPOSITION.  PROPOSITIONS. 

The  Spaniards  had 
traversed  the  ocean  in 
these  machines  (6). 

The  machines  seem- 
ed to  move  upon  the 
waters  with  wings  (c). 

The  machines  utter- 
ed a  dreadful  sound  re- 
sembling thunder  (J). 

The'  Indians  began 
to  suspect  their  new 
guests  to  be  a  superior 
order  of  beings  (e). 

They  concluded 
something  (/). 

The  Spaniards  were 
the  children  of  the 
sun  (#). 

The  children  had 
descended  to  visit  the 
earth  (K). 

Sentence  Constructed. 

'The  vast  machines  in  which  the  Spaniards  had  traversed 
the  ocean,  and  which  seemed  to  move  upon  the  waters 
with  wings,  and  uttered  a  dreadful  sound  resembling 
thunder,  struck  the  Indians  with  such  terror  that  they 
began  to  suspect  their  new  guests  to  be  a  superior  or- 
der of  beings,  and  concluded  that  the  Spaniards  were 
children  of  the  sun,  who  had  descended  to  visit  the 
earth.' 
NOTE. — Take  notice  of  the  manner  in  which  this  sentence  is  punctuated. 

Exercise  50. 

Condense  the  following  PROPOSITIONS  into  COMPLEX  SEN- 
TENCES : 

1.  (a)  The  merino  sheep  is  a  native  of  Spain. 
(6)  Fine  cloth  is  made  from  its  wool. 

2.  (a)  Tea  was  unknown  in  this  country  a  few  centuries  ago. 
(b)  We  could  now  scarcely  dispense  with  it. 

3.  (a)  The  city  of  Rome  is  situated  on  the  River  Tiber. 
(6)  The  city  is  about  sixteen  miles  distant  from  the  sea. 

4.  (a)  The  sea-dikes  in  Holland  are  generally  about  thirty  feet  in  height. 
(6)  They  are  erected  all  along  the  coast. 


160  ANALYSIS   AND   CONSTRUCTION. 

5.  (a)  Charles  V.  was  the  most  renowned  of  all  the  emperors  of  Germany. 

(b)  He  abdicated  the  throne. 

(c)  He  retired  to  a  convent. 

6.  (a)  The  Spaniards  were  beginning  to  despair. 

(b)  The  eagle  eye  of  Cortez  had  been  keenly  surveying  the  whole  field 

of  battle. 

(c)  He  saw  where  the  sacred  banner  of  Mexico  was  borne  aloft  in  tri- 

umph. 

7.  (a)  Caesar  might  not  have  been  murdered. 

(6)  Suppose  Ceesar  had  taken  the  advice  of  the  friend, 
(c)  The  friend  warned  him  not  to  go  to  the  senate-house  on  the  Ides 
of  March. 

8.  (a)  The  world  is  of  this  opinion. 
(6)  The  end  of  fencing  is  to  hit. 

(c)  The  end  of  medicine  is  to  cure. 

(d)  The  end  of  war  is  to  conquer. 

9.  (a)  The  heat  was  so  great. 
(/;)  We  were  living  in  Italy. 

(c)  We  were  obliged  to  remain  in  darkened  rooms  during  several  hours 

of  the  day. 
10.  (a)  The  lion  was  magnificent  to  behold. 

(b)  He  was  standing  with  his  cheek  against  the  grating  of  his  cage. 

(c)  He  was  attempting  to  break  down  the  obstacle. 

(d)  This  obstacle  separated  us. 

(e)  He  shook  the  wall  of  his  cage  with  roars  of  rage. 

CHAPTER  IV. 

THE    COMPOUND    SENTENCE. 

1.  The  Compound  Sentence  Analyzed. 

402.  A  Compound  Sentence  contains  two  or  more  Principal 
Propositions ;  as, '  Napoleon  Bonaparte  crossed  the  Alps  and 
descended  into  the  plains  of  Italy ;'  'Man  proposes,  but  God 
disposes.' 

NOTES. 

NOTE  1. — A  Compound  Sentence  may  consist  of  two  or  more  principal 
propositions,  or  it  may  be  made  up  of  two  or  more  complex  members.  In 
the  latter  case,  the  sentence  may  be  termed  composite  compound,  but  it  is 
definite  enough  for  our  purpose  to  consider  such  a  sentence  compound. 

1.  All  that  I  have,  and  all  that  I  am,  and  all  that  I  hope,  in  this  life,  I  am 

now  ready  here  to  stake  upon  it ;  and  I  leave  off  as  I  began,  that,  live 
or  die,  survive  or  perish,!  am  for  the  Declaration. — Webster. 

2.  The  evil  that  men  do  lives  after  them ; 

The  good  is  oft  interred  with  their  bones. — Shakspeare. 
NOTE  II. — Table  of  Conjunctions,  Adverbs,  and  Adverbial  Phrases  used 
to  connect  the  Propositions  of  Compound  Sentences. 
fAnd,  also,  likewise,  again,  besides. 

Copulative •<  Moreover,  further,  furthermore,  both and  also. 

(Not  only. . .  .but,  then,  too  (following  another  word). 


THE  COMPOUND  SENTENCE.  161 

(Either or. 

Disjunctive -^Neither nor,  nor  (in  the  sense  of  and  not). 

{Otherwise,  else. 

{'  But,  on  the  other  hand,  but  then. 
Only,  nevertheless,  at  the  same  time. 
However,  notwithstanding. 
On  the  one  hand,  on  the  other  hand,  conversely. 
Yet,  still,  for  all  that. 
( Therefore,  thereupon,  wherefore. 
Illative  I  Accordingly,  consequently. 

"  )  Hence,  whence,  so  then,  so  then,  and  so. 
( For,  thus. 

NOTE  III. — The  adverbial  connectives  are  frequently  joined  with  a  con- 
junction proper  to  form  a  connection  between  propositions ;  as,  'The  town 
was  badly  defended,  and  therefore  became  a  prey  to  the  enemy. 

NOTE  IV. — The  connectives  of  the  propositions  of  compound  sentences 
are  frequently  omitted  for  rhetorical  effect. 

MODELS  OF  ANALYSIS. 

Example  1. 

c  Read  this  declaration  at  the  head  of  the  army :  every 
sword  will  be  drawn  from  its  scabbard,  and  the  sol- 
emn vow  uttered  to  maintain  it,  or  to  perish  on  the 
bed  of  honor.' 

This  is  a  compound  sentence  consisting  of  three  principal 
propositions,  of  which  the  subjects  and  the  predicates  are  as 
follow : 

1.  Subject  'You'  [understood]  ;  'read  this  declaration  [predicate]. 

2.  sword  [subject]  ;  will  be  drawn  [predicate]. 

3.  vow  [subject]  ;  (will  be)  uttered  [predicate]. 

***  The  sub-analysis  of  the  principal  propositions  may  be  given  accord- 
ing to  the  previous  models  for  simple  sentences. 

Example  2. 

'The  theory  of  the  Mohammedan  government  rests  upon 
the  maintenance  of  a  clear  separation  from  the  un- 
believers ;  and  to  propose  to  a  Mussulman  of  any 
piety  that  the  Commarider  of  the  Faithful  should 
obliterate  the  distinction  between  Mohammedans 
and  Christians  would  be  proposing  to  obliterate  the 
distinction  between  virtue  and  vice;  the  notion 
would  seem  to  be  not  merely  wrong  and  wicked,  but 
a  contradiction  in  terms.' 

This  is  a  compound  sentence  consisting  of  four  principal 
propositions : 


162  ANALYSIS   AND   CONSTRUCTION. 

1.  The  theory  [S.] * rests  [P.]. 

2.  To  propose  that  the  Commander  of  the  Faithful  should  obliterate  the 

distinction  [S.].  .would  be  proposing  to  obliterate  the  distinction  [P.]. 

3.  The  notion  [S.].  .would  seem  to  be  wrong  and  wicked  [P.]. 

4.  [;  The  notion'  understood  S.]  ['  would  seem  to  be'  understood]  a  contra- 

diction [P.]. 

5.  'That  the  Commander  of  the  Faithful  should  obliterate,'  etc.,  is  a  de- 

pendent proposition,  complement  of  '  to  propose. ' 

CONTRACTED  OB  ELLIPTICAL  COMPOUND  SENTENCES. 
403.  It  often  happens  that  different  portions  of  a  compound 
sentence  have  the  same  subject,  or  the  same  predicate,  or  the 
same  enlargements  of  either,  or  of  both.  If  these  common 
elements  are  not  repeated,  the  sentence  is  contracted  or  ellip- 
tical. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1.  'God  sustains  and  (God)  governs  the  world.' 

2.  'Either  a  knave  (must  have  done  this)  or  a  fool  must 

have  done  this.' 

3.  'The  trade  winds  (are  permanent)  and  the  monsoons 

are  permanent.' 

4.  '  The  air  expands  (by  heat)  and  (the  air)  becomes  light 

by  heat.' 

5.  'Frogs  and  seals  live  on  land  and  on  water' =to  four 

simple  sentences :  1.  Frogs  live  on  land.  2.  Frogs 
live  in  water.  3.  Seals  live  on  land.  4.  Seals  live 
in  water. 

6.  '  Men  should  not  talk  to  please  themselves,  but  (men 

should  talk  to  please)  those  that  hear  them.' — Steele. 

7.  '  Stone  walls  do  not  a  prison  make, 

Nor  (do)  iron  bars  (make)  a  cage.' — Lovelace. 

8.  '  Some  books  are  to  be  tasted,  others  (are)  to  be  swal- 

lowed, and  some  few  (are)  to  be  chewed  and  (some 
few  are  to  be)  digested.' — Bacon. 

9.  '  That  loss  is  common  would  not  make 

My  own  less  bitter,  rather  (it  would  make  my  loss) 
more  (bitter).' — Tennyson. 

10.  'Thrice  is  he  armed  that  hath  his  quarrel  just; 

And  he  (is)  but  naked,  though  (he  be)  locked  up  in  steel, 
Whose  conscience  with  injustice  is  corrupted.' — Shak- 
speare. 

11.  'But  the  monarchy  did  not  come,  nor  (did)  the  aristoc- 

racy (come),  nor  (did)  the  Church,  as  an  estate  of  the 
realm'  (come). — Webster. 


THE    COMPOUND   SENTENCE.  163 

12.  "Tis  distance  lends  enchantment  to  the  view, 

And  ('tis  distance  that)  robes  the  mountains  with  its 
azure  hue.' 

13.  A  variety  of  contractions  may  be  combined  in  one  sen- 
tence, as  follows : 

'  With  every  effort,  with  every  breath,  and  with  every 
motion — voluntary  or  involuntary — a  part  of  the 
muscular  substance  becomes  dead,  separates  from 
the  living  part,  combines  with  the  remaining  por- 
tions of  inhaled  oxygen,  and  is  removed.' 
Here  there  are  four  predicates,  having  but  one  subject,  and  three  en- 
largements of  these  predicates  distinct  from  one  another.     To  express  the 
entire  meaning  of  the  sentence  in  separate  propositions,  we  should  have 
first  to  repeat  the  subject  with  each  predicate,  making  four  simple  sentences, 
and  then  repeat  each  of  those  sentences  with  each  of  the  enlargements, 
making  twelve  propositions  in  all. 

Exercise  51. 
A. 

Analyze  the  following  COMPOUND  SENTENCES:     m 

1.  Men's  evil  manners  live  in  brass  :  their  virtues  we  write  in  water. 

2.  I  love  Freedom  :  I  will  speak  her  words  ;  I  will  listen  to  her  music ; 

I  will  acknowledge  her  impulses  ;  1  will  stand  beneath  her  flag ;  I 
will  fight  in  her  ranks  ;  and,  when  I  do  so,  I  shall  find  myself  sur- 
rounded by  the  great,  the  wise,  the  good,  the  brave,  the  noble  of 
every  land. — E.  D.  Baker. 

3.  I  have  seen  Freedom  in  history  again  and  again ;  with  mine  own  eyes 

I  have  watched  her  again  and  again  struck  down  on  a  hundred 
chosen  fields  of  battle. 

4.  I  have  seen  her  friends  fly  from  her;  I  have  seen  her  foes  gather  around 

her ;  I  have  seen  them  bind  her  to  the  stake ;  I  have  seen  them 
give  her  ashes  to  the  winds — regathering  them  again  that  they 
might  scatter  them  yet  more  widely ;  but  when  her  foes  turned  to 
exult,  I  have  seen  her  again  meet  them  face  to  face,  resplendent  in 
complete  steel,  and  brandishing  in  her  strong  right  hand  a  flaming 
sword,  red  with  insufferable  light. — E.  D.  Baker. 

5.  Nature  has,  indeed,  given  us  a  soil  which  yields  bounteously  to  the 

hands  of  industry ;  the  mighty  and  fruitful  ocean  is  before  us,  and 
the  skies  over  our  heads  shed  health  and  vigor. — Daniel  Webster. 

6.  We  do  not,  indeed,  expect  all  men  to  be  philosophers  or  statesmen,  but 

we  confidently  trust,  and  our  expectation  of  the  duration  of  our 
system  of  government  rests  on  that  trust,  that  by  the  diffusion  of 
general  knowledge,  and  good  and  virtuous  sentiments,  the  political 
fabric  may  be  secure,  as  well  against  open  violence  and  overthrow 
as  against  that  slow  but  sure  undermining  of  licentiousness. — 
Webster. 

7.  No  man  can  suffer  too  much,  and  no  man  can  fall  too  soon,  if  he  suf- 


164  ANALYSIS   AND   CONSTRUCTION. 

fer  or  if  he  fall  in  defense  of  the  liberties  and  constitution  of  his 
country. 

8.  The  arts,  sciences,  and  literature  of  England  came  over  with  the  set- 

tlers ;  the  jury  came ;  the  habeas  corpus  came ;  the  testamentary 
power  came ;  and  the  law  of  inheritance  and  descent  came  also, 
except  that  part  of  it  which  recognizes  the  rights  of  primogeniture, 
which  either  did  not  come  at  all,  or  soon  gave  way  to  the  rule  of 
equal  partition  of  estates  among  children. — Webster. 

9.  On  a  sudden,  open  fly 
With  impetuous  recoil  and  jarring  sounds 
The  infernal  doors  ;  and  on  their  hinges  grate 
Harsh  thunder. — Milton. 

10.  It  (Bacon's  Philosophy)  has  lengthened* life ;  it  has  mitigated  pain; 
it  has  extinguished  diseases  ;  it  has  increased  the  fertility  of  the 
soil ;  it  has  given  new  securities  to  the  mariner  ;  it  has  furnished 
new  arms  to  the  warrior ;  it  has  spanned  great  rivers  and  estuaries 
with  bridges  of  form  unknown  to  our  fathers ;  it  has  guided  the 
thunderbolt  innocuously  from  heaven  to  earth ;  it  has  lighted  up 
the  night  with  the  splendor  of  the  day ;  it  has  extended  the  range 
of  the  human  vision ;  it  has  multiplied  the  power  of  the  human 
muscles ;  it  has  accelerated  motion  ;  it  has  annihilated  distance ; 
it  has  facilitated  intercourse,  correspondence,  all  friendly  offices, 
all  dispatch  of  business ;  it  has  enabled  men  to  descend  to  the 
•  depths  of  the  sea,  to  soar  into  the  air,  to  penetrate  securely  into  the 
noxious  recesses  of  the  earth,  to  traverse  the  land  in  cars  which 
whirl  along  without  horses,  and  the  ocean  in  ships  which  run  ten 
knots  an  hour  against  the  wind. — Macaulay' s  Essay  on  Lord  Bacon. 

[Compound  Sentence  of  19  propositions  and  163  words, ,] 

B. 

Change  the  following  inverted  Compound  Sentences  into  their 
common  order: 

1 .  Now  came  still  evening  on,  and  twilight  gray 
Had  in  her  sober  livery  all  things  clad. — Milton. 

2.  'Twas  in  autumn,  and  stormy  and  dark  was  the  night, 
And  fast  were  the  windows  and  doors. — Southey. 

C. 

Supply  the  Ellipsis  in  the  following  Sentences: 

1.  But  what  are  lands,  and  seas,  and  skies  to  civilized  man,  without  so- 

ciety, without  knowledge,  without  morals,  without  religious  culture  ? 
and  how  can  these  be  enjoyed,  in  all  their  extent,  and  all  their  excel- 
lence, but  under  the  protection  of  wise  institutions  and  a  free  govern- 
ment ? —  Webster. 

2.  Some  place  their  bliss  in  action,  some  in  ease ; 
These  call  it  pleasure,  and  contentment  these. 

3.  All  nature  is  but  art  unknown  to  thee ; 

All  chance,  direction  which  thou  canst  not  see ; 
All  discord,  harmony  not  understood  ; 
All  partial  evil,  universal  good. — Pope. 


THE  COMPOUND  SENTENCE.  165 

4.  Man  never  is,  but  always  to  be  bless'd. — Pope. 

5.  Not  a  drum  was  heard,  not  a  funeral  note. 

6.  Reading  makes  a  full  man ;  speaking  a  ready  man ;  writing  a  correct 

man. 

2.  Sentence-Building—Compound  Sentences. 
404.  In  working  the  following  exercises  in  compound  sen- 
tence building,  the  pupil  is  to  proceed  in  the  same  manner  as 
in  the  construction  of  simple  and  of  complex  sentences.  The 
only  additional  fact  is  the  connection  of  the  principal  propo- 
sitions. The  proper  connectives  to  be  used  will  be  indicated 
in  each  exercise. 

Punctuation  of  Compound  Sentences. 

RULE  I.  The  rules  of  Punctuation  for  Simple  Sentences 
and  for  Complex  Sentences  apply  to  Simple  and  to  Complex 
Clauses  in  Compound  Sentences. 

RULE  II.  Principal  propositions  are  generally  separated 
by  a  semicolon ;  as, '  The  genius  making  me  no  answer,  I 
turned  about  to  address  myself  to  him  a  second  time ;  but  I 
found  that  he  had  left  me.' 

RULE  III.  When  the  propositions  are  simple,  and  neither 
of  them  contains  a  comma  within  itself,  a  comma  may  be  used 
to  separate  them ;  as, '  Every  man  desireth  to  live  long,  but 
no  man  would  be  old.'  But  if  the  connective  is  omitted  the 
semicolon  must  be  used. 

RULE  IV.  In  contracted  sentences,  the  omissions  within 
the  propositions  are  indicated  by  commas ;  as,  'To  err  is  hu- 
man ;  to  forgive,  divine.' 

RULE  Y.  The  semicolon  is  the  peculiar  mark  of  the  com- 
pound sentence.  It  is  never  used  in  any  other  kind  of  sen- 
tence. 

MODELS  OF  SYNTHESIS. 

Example  1. 
PRINCIPAL  PROPOSITIONS.  ENLARGEMENTS. 

{The  distance  was  about  a  mile  and 
a  half  [adv.  < of  P.]. 
He  was  on  horseback  [adv.  <of  P.]. 
He  returned  to  the  camp  [adv.  <of  P.]. 
(cop.  and}  He  was  faint  with  the  loss  of  blood  [adj. 

phrase  <  of  S.]. 

He  called  for  a  drink.  +He  was  probably  parched  with  thirst, 

owing  to  the  heat  of  the  weather 
[adj.  phrase  < of  S.]. 


166  ANALYSIS   AND   CONSTRUCTION. 

Sentence  Constructed. — '  Sydney  returned  about  a  mile  and 
a  half  on  horseback  to  the  camp,  and,  faint  with  the 
loss  of  blood,  and  probably  parched  with  thirst,  owing 
to  the  heat  of  the  weather,  he  called  for  a  drink.' 

Example  2. 
PRINCIPAL  PROPOSITIONS.  ENLARGEMENTS. 

He  set  off  on  my  approach  [adv.  <of  P.]. 
He  set  off  full  tilt  [adv.  <of  P.]. 


The  buffalo  again  set 
off. 

(cop.  while} 


He  heaved  himself  forward  with  a  heavy  rolling 

gallop  [adj.  phrase  <of  S.]. 
-f  He  dashed  with  precipitation  through  brakes 

and  ravines  [adj.  phrase  <of  S.]. 


(  They  were  startled  from  their  coverts  by  his  thun- 
Several  deer  and  1      dering  career  [adj.  phrase  <of  S.]. 

wolves  ran.  <  They  ran  helter  skelter  [adv.  <of  P.]. 

1  They  ran  to  right  and  left  [adv.  <of  P.]. 
(They  ran  across  the  prairie  [adv.  <of  P.]. 

Sentence  Constructed. — -{  On  my  approach,  the  buffalo,  heav- 
ing himself  forward  with  a  heavy  rolling  gallop,  and 
dashing  with  precipitation  through  brakes  and  ra- 
vines, again  set  oif  full  tilt,  while  several  deer  and 
wolves,  startled  from  their  coverts  by  his  thunder- 
ing career,  ran  helter  skelter,  right  and  left,  across 
the  prairie.' 

NOTE. — Observe  the  peculiar  use  of  the  conjunction  while.  Though 
while  is  ordinarily  a  subordinate  connective,  it  is  here  a  co-ordinate  con- 
nective, being  equivalent  to  and  at  this  time.  In  like  manner,  when  is  a  co- 
ordinate connective  when  it  means  and  at  this  time,  and  where  is  so  also 
when  it  means  and  at  this  place. 

Example  3, 

PRINCIPAL  PROPOSITIONS.  ENLARGEMENTS. 

(  I  The  meteor  was  little  [adj .  < of  S.]. 

\  The  meteor  was  blazing  [adj.  <of  S.]. 
A  meteor  shot.  -I  It  shot  at  this  moment  [adv.  <  of  P.]. 

1  It  shot  like  a  glowing  coalof  fire  [adv.  <of  P.]. 
(_  It  shot  across  the  glen  [adv.  <of  P.]. 

(cop.)  rit  was  the  first  time  I  had  seen  it  [adv.  <of  P.]. 

I  I  saw  it  with  admiration  and  astonishment  [adv.  < 

of  P.]. 

I  saw  that  gem.  <(  The  gem  was  resplendent  [adj.  <of  comp.]. 

I  The  gem  was  living  [adj.  <  of  comp.]. 
I  It  was  the  humming-bird  [adj.  < by  apposition  of 
I     P.1 

Constructed  Sentence. — At  this  moment  a  little  blazing 
meteor  shot  across  the  glen  like  a  glowing  coal  of 
fire,  and,  as  it  was  the  first  time  that  I  had  seen  that 


THE  COMPOUND  SENTENCE.  167 

resplendent  living  gem,  the  humming-bird,  I  saw  it 
with  admiration  and  astonishment. 

Example  4. 

PRINCIPAL  PROPOSITIONS.  ENLARGEMENTS. 

C I  did  not  choose  to  trust 
the  sea  again. 

(advers.  but) 

I  I  preferred  a  mode.  jflt  was  another  mode  [adj.  <of  comp.  of  P.]. 

(illat.  therefore)         \It  was  a  mode  of  living  [adj.  phrase  <of  P.]. 
I  applied  to  a  nurseryman 
near  me. 

(cop.) 

I  was  received.  I  was  to  be  a  day  laborer  [pred.  nominative, 

comp.  of  P.]. 

Constructed  Sentence. — c  I  did  not  choose  to  trust  the  sea 
again,  but  preferred  another  mode  of  living ;  I  there- 
fore applied  to  a  nurseryman  near  me,  and  was  re- 
ceived as  a  day  laborer.' 

NOTE. — Observe  the  mode  in  which  this  sentence  is  punctuated.  There 
is  so  close  a  connection  between  the  member, '  I  did  not  choose,'  etc.,  and 
'but  preferred,'  etc.,  that 'the  comma  is  sufficient  separation.  The  suc- 
ceeding member,  'I  therefore  applied,'  etc.,  is,  however,  so  dissevered  in 
sense  as  to  require  the  semicolon.  The  last  member  is  fenced  off  by  the 
comma. 

Exercise  52. 

Construct  COMPOUND  Sentences  out  of  the  following  principal 
Propositions  and  Enlargements: 

PRINCIPAL  PROPOSITIONS.  ENLARGEMENTS. 

C  A  crocodile  infested  ( Its  size  was  prodigious  [adj.  phrase  <of  S.]. 
\      the  banks  of  the  \  Its  fierceness  was  uncommon  [adv.  phrase  <  of  S.]. 
1.  1     Nile.  1 

(cop.)  1  The  desolation  was  through  all  the  neighboring 

'  It  spread  desolation.  [      country  [adv.  phrase  <of  P.]. 

PRINCIPAL  PROPOSITIONS.  •ENLARGEMENTS. 

/'He  finds  them  in  his  subterranean  explorations 

\  Th(^  a're  imbedded  in*  t<>he  rocks  l>dJ-  Phrase  <of 


2. 


(illative,  so  that)  ( In  the  bowels  of  the  earth  [adj.  phrase  <  of '  rocks']. 

!The  connection  is  not  a  necessary  one  [adj.  <of 
comp.  of  P.], 
It  is  a  connection  with  the  present  distribution  of 
sea  and  land  [adj.  phrase  <  of  comp.  of  P.]. 


168  ANALYSIS   AND   CONSTRUCTION. 

PRINCIPAL  PROPOSITIONS.  ENLARGEMENTS. 

f  1 .  They  were  wedged  in  amongst  the 
The  sentinels  were  wedged  in.    |  crowd  [adv.  phrase  <of  P.]. 

2.  Who  endeavored  to  prevent  the  peo- 


(cop.) 


An  officer  was  compelled  to 


pie  from  trespassing  on  the  par- 
apet [adj.  clause  <of  S.]. 

3.  He  was  compelled  to  retire  rapid- 

ly [adv.  <  of  P.]. 

4.  Who  ordered  the  sentinels  to  drive 

the  people  down  with  their  bay- 


retire,  onets  [adj.  clause  <  of  S.]. 

|   5.  He  ordered  the  sentinels  not  very 
(illative,  for.)  prudently  on  such  an  occasion 

i[adv.  phrase  <  of  P.  of  4]. 
6.  Until  the  last  moment  [adv.  phrase 
<of  P.]. 
7.  Upon  the  hero  [adv.  phrase  <  of 
gaziny]. 

5.  PRINCIPAL  PROPOSITIONS  AND  ENLARGEMENTS. 

A.  We  prepare  to  meet  the  blow. 

(cop.) 

B.  We  think  to  ward  off  the  blow. 

(dis.  conj.  or) 

C.  We  think  to  break  the  force  of  the  blow. 

1.  When  the  blow  is  coming  [adv.  <of  P.  of  A,  B,  C]. 

D.  We  arm  ourselves  with  patience  to  endure. 

2.  What  can  not  be  avoided  [noun-clause,  object  of  'to  endure']. 

E.  We  agitate  ourselves  with  fifty  needless  alarms  about  it. 

F.  But  the  pang  is  over. 

(cop.) 

G.  And  the  struggle  is  no  longer  necessary. 

3.  When  the  blow  is  struck  [adv.  clause  of  time,  <  of  F,  G]. 

(cop.) 
H.  We  cease  to  harass  ourselves  more  about  the  blow. 

4.  Than  we  can  help  [adv.  clause  of  comparison]. 

Contraction  and  Expansion  of  Sentences. 

405.  In  addition  to  the  exercises  previously  given  in  the 
analysis  and  in  the  construction  of  sentences,  it  will  be  found 
both  a  pleasing  and  a  profitable  drill  to  contract  complex  sen- 
tences into  simple  ones,  and  compound  sentences  into  com- 
plex sentences. 

406.  By  a  little  artifice,  a  compound  sentence  may  be  re- 
cast into  a  complex  sentence,  and  the  complex  sentence  again 
may  be  worked  down  into  a  simple  sentence,  while  in  each 
substantially  the  same  idea  is  expressed. 


THE  COMPOUND   SENTENCE.  169 

ILLUSTEATIONS. 

c  The  sea  spent  its  fury,  and  then  it  became  calm.' 

EXPLANATION. — This  is  a  compound  sentence.  It  consists  of  two  prin- 
cipal propositions  connected  by  '  and. '  You  will  notice  that  each  proposi- 
tion has,  so  to  speak,  the  same  rank. 

The  plan  for  converting  this  compound  sentence  into  the  complex  form 
is  to  reduce  the  rank  of  one  of  the  principal  propositions  by  turning  it  into 
a  clause  introduced  by  a  connective  that  will  cause  it  to  hang  or  depend  on 
the  other.  Doing  this,  we  have  the  following  complex  sentence : 

'  The  sea  became  calm  when  it  had  spent  its  fury,'  or, 
'  When  the  sea  had  spent  its  fury  it  became  calm.' 

EXPLANATION. — These  are  complex  sentences.  You-  will  notice  that 
what  was  originally  a  principal  proposition, '  the  sea  spent  its  fury, '  appears 
now  in  the  form  of  a  clause  introduced  by  the  connective  adverb  'when,' 
and  that  this  adverb  subordinates  it  to  the  remaining  principal  proposition. 

The  plan  for  reducing  this  complex  sentence  to  the  form  of  a  simple  sen- 
tence is  to  boil  down  the  clause  into  a  phrase.  [Ke-read  the  definition  of 
a  phrase,  1[  364,  and  remember  that  a  phrase  can  have  neither  subject  nor 
predicate.]  Condensing  the  clause  into  a  phrase,  we  have  the  following 
simple  sentence : 

'The  sea,  having  spent  its  fury, became  calm,'  or, 
c  Having  spent  its  fury,  the  sea  became  calm,'  or, 
c  The  sea  became  calm,  having  spent  its  fury.' 

EXPLANATION.  — These  sentences  fully  answer  to  the  definition  of  a  sim- 
ple sentence,  each  having  but  one  subject, '  sea, '  and  but  one  predicate, '  be- 
came calm. '  '  Having  spent  its  fury'  is  a  phrase  introduced  by  the  participle 
'  having  spent. ' 

407.  Substantially  the  same  idea  is  expressed  in  each  of 
these  sentences ;  but  notice  the  different  effect  of  the  several 
ways  of  putting  the  idea. 

408.  In  the  compound  sentences  we  have  two  principal 
propositions  on  the  same  level  and  of  equal  importance.     In 
the  complex  form,  one  of  the  propositions  is  reduced  to  the 
level  of  a  mere  attendant  circumstance, '  when  it  had  spent 
its  fury,'  while  the  proposition/ the  sea  became  calm,'  stands 
out  in  bold  relief,  and  is  the  leading  statement. 

409.  In  the  simple  form,  the  attendant  circumstance  is  still 
further  reduced  in  importance  by  ceasing  to  be  a  proposition 
at  all,  and  by  becoming  a  mere  adjective  phrase. 

The  varying  effect  produced  by  these  changes  may  be  compared  to  the 
foreground,  middle  ground,  and  background  of  a  picture. 

410.  EXPANSION  is  the  reverse  of  contraction. 

H 


170  ANALYSIS   AND    CONSTRUCTION. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

'At  the  conclusion  of  the  battle,  the  commander  began  to 

estimate  his  loss' — simple  sentence. 
4  When  the  battle  was  concluded,  the  commander  began  to 

estimate  his  loss' — complex  sentence. 
'  The  battle  had  been  concluded,  and  then  the  commander 

began  to  estimate  his  loss' — compound  sentence. 
411.  There  are  various  minor  ways  of  treating  a  series  of 
sentences  so  as  to  put  them  in  better  shape.     The  following 
paragraph  will  illustrate  some  of  these : 

The  lion  is  found  in  Africa.  The  lion  is  found  in  Asia,  During  the  day 
the  lion  slumbers  in  his  retreat.  Night  sets  in.  The  lion  then  rouses  him- 
self from  his  lair.  The  lion  then  begins  to  prowl.  In  general,  the  lion 
waits  in  ambush.  The  lion  sometimes  creeps  toward  its  victim.  The  lion 
seizes  its  victim  with  its  powerful  claws. 

Combined  thus : 

The  lion  is  found  in  Africa  and  Asia.  During  the  day  he  slumbers  in 
his  retreat ;  but  when  night  sets  in  he  rouses  himself  from  his  lair  and  be- 
gins to  prowl.  In  general,  he  waits  in  ambush.  Sometimes,  however,  he 
creeps  toward  his  victim,  and  seizes  it  with  his  powerful  claws. 

Exercise  53. 
A. 

Contract  the  following  COMPOUND  SENTENCES  into  COMPLEX 
SENTENCES,  and  then,  if  possible,  into  Simple  Sentences: 

1.  The  light  infantry  joined  the  main  body,  and  the  British  troops  retreat- 

ed precipitately  into  Boston. 

2.  He  was  a  worthless  man,  and  he  could  not  command  the  respect  of  his 

neighbors. 

3.  Egypt  is  a  wonderfully  fertile  country,  and  it  is  annually  overflowed  by 

the  Kiver  Nile. 

4.  The  earth  is  round,  and  no  one  doubts  it. 

5.  The  house  was  very  large,  and  consequently  there  was  little  comfort  in 

it. 

B. 

Contract  the  following  Complex  Sentences  into  Simple  Sen- 
tences : 

1 .  Socrates  proved  that  virtue  is  its  own  reward. 

2.  When  morning  began  to  dawn,  our  ship  struck  on  a  sunken  reef  near 

the  rock-bound  coast. 

3.  It  may  be  easily  shown  that  the  earth  is  round  [the  rotundity  of]. 
5.  It  is  generally  believed  that  the  soul  is  immortal. 


THE  COMPOUND  SENTENCE.  171 

C. 

Expand  the  following  Simple  Sentences  into  Complex  Sen- 
tences : 

1 .  Quarrelsome  persons  are  disagreeable. 

2.  The  ancients  believed.the  earth  to  be  the  centre  of  the  universe. 

3.  With  patience,  he  might  have  succeeded. 

4.  The  utility  of  the  telegraph  is  evident  to  all. 

5.  The  manner  of  his  escape  is  a  profound  mystery. 

D. 

Contract  the  following  Paragraphs  into  Complex  Sentences: 

NOTE. — Use  proper  conjunctions  and  relatives,  and  do  not  let  the  word 
and  recur  too  often. 

1.  England  abounds  in  fine  pastures. 
England,  abounds  in  extensive  downs. 

These  pastures  and  downs  feed  great  numbers  of  sheep. 

2.  The  Highlanders  were  composed  of  a  number  of  tribes. 
These  tribes  were  called  clans. 

Each  clan  bore  a  different  name. 

Each  clan  lived  upon  the  lands  of  a  different  chieftain. 

3.  The  cuckoo  builds  no  nest  for  herself. 
She  lays  in  the  nests  of  other  birds. 

She  does  not  lay  indiscriminately  in  the  nests  of  all  birds. 

4.  The  pitcher-plant  is  a  native  of  the  East  Indies. 
The  pitcher-plant  has  mugs  or  tankards. 
These  are  attached  to  its  leaves. 

They  hold  each  from  a  pint  to  a  quart  of  very  pure  water. 

5.  A  young  girl  had  fatigued  herself  one  hot  day. 
It  was  with  running  about  the  garden. 

She  sat  herself  down  in  a  pleasant  arbor. 
She  soon  fell  asleep. 

6.  Steel  is  made. 

It  is  made  by  heating  small  bars  of  iron  with  charcoal. 

Or  by  heating  them  with  bone  and  horn  shavings. 

Or  with  other  inflammable  substances. 

By  this  heating  the  metal  acquires  a  finer  grain. 

It  acquires  a  more  compact  texture. 

It  becomes  harder. 

It  becomes  more  elastic. 

7.  Augustus  Caesar  has  been  called  a  great  prince. 
Louis  XVI.,  of  France,  has  been  called  a  great  prince. 
But,  deprive  both  of  their  crown, 

They  will  both  dwindle  into  obscure  characters. 
They  will  both  dwindle  into  trivial  characters. 

8.  Beyond  the  Mississippi  are  vast  prairies. 
These  prairies  are  covered  with  grass. 

Great  herds  of  buffalo  roam  over  these  prairies. 
Great  herds  of  deer  roam  over  these  prairies. 


172  ANALYSIS   AND   CONSTRUCTION. 

E. 

Throw  each  series  of  SIMPLE  Sentences  into  one  EXPANDED 

Sentence. 

NOTE. — The  sentences  made  must  be  Simple,  i.  e.,  they  must  have  but 
one  finite  verb. 

1.  The  boy  fell.     The  boy  was  little.     It  was  a  ditch  he  fell  into.     The 
ditch  was  dry.     It  was  this  morning  that  he  fell  in. 

2.  The  river  overflowed.     The  river  was  the  Thames.     The  banks  were 
overflowed.     It  was  in  November.     It  was  on  the  15th  of  that  month.     On 
both  sides  it  was  overflown. 

3.  A  boy  came.     The  boy  was  pretty.     He  was  little.     He  was  blue-eyed. 
He  had  rosy  cheeks.     It  was  his  mother  he  came  to.     The  boy  had  a  rabbit. 
It  was  a  young  one.     It  was  white.     It  was  lop-eared.     He  carried  it  in  his 
pinafore. 

4.  Leonidas  died.    Leonidas  was  a  king.    He  was  King  of  Sparta.    Three 
hundred  of  his  countrymen  died  with  him.     They  died  like  heroes.     It  was 
at  Thermopylae  they  died.     They  died  to  defend  their  country.     They  were 
defending  their  country  against  the  Persians. 

5.  John  signed.     John  was  a  king.     It  was  a  document  called  Magna 
Charta  that  he  signed.     John  was  afraid  of  his  barons.     He  did  not  care 
about  liberty.     He  signed  it  at  Runnymede.     Runnymede  is  on  the  Thames. 
It  is  not  far  from  Windsor. 

6.  The  boy  wrote.     He  was  a  good  boy.     He  wrote  a  letter.     He  wrote 
to  his  father.     He  wrote  from  school.     He  wrote  on  his  birthday.     It  was  a 
long  letter.    He  wrote  it  early  in  the  morning.    He  wrote  it  before  breakfast. 

F. 

Employ  the  methods  of  Contraction  and  the  various  minor 
ways  spoken  of  in  ^f  411,  so  as  to  reduce  the  Sentences  of  the 
following  Paragraphs  into  better  shape : 

1 .  The  polar  bear  is  of  a  white  color.     It  is  found  in  the  arctic  regions. 
It  leads  almost  entirely  an  aquatic  mode  of  life  in  these  regions.     Its  body  is 
long.     Its  head  is  flat.     Its  muzzle  is  broad.     Its  mouth  is  peculiarly  small. 
The  paws  are  very  large.     They  are  covered  on  the  under  side  with  coarse 
hair.     From  the  coarse  hair  it  derives  security  in  walking  over  the  slippery 
ice.     The  fur  is  long.     The  fur  is  woolly.     It  is  of  fine  texture.     It  is  of 
considerable  value. 

2.  A  crow  was  ready  to  die  with  thirst.     He  flew  with  joy  to  a  pitcher. 
He  saw  the  pitcher  r.t  a  distance.     He  came  up  to  it.     He  found  the  water 
very  low.     With  all  his  stooping  he  was  unable  to  reach  it.     Upon  this  he 
attempted  to  break  the  pitcher.     He  attempted  to  overturn  it.     His  strength 
was  not  sufficient  to  do  either.     At  last  he  saw  some  pebbles  at  hand.    He 
dropped  a  great  many  of  them  into  the  pitcher.     He  dropped  them  one  by 
one.     In  this  way  he  raised  the  water  up  to  the  brim.     He  quenched  his 
thirst.    Learn  a  lesson  from  this.    Skill  succeeds.    Patience  succeeds.    Force 
often  fails. 

3.  A  traveler  was  pursuing  his  way  along  a  narrow  road.     The  road  was 
bordered  on  the  one  hand  by  a  steep  hill.     It  was  bordered  on  the  other  by 


THE  COMPOUND  SENTENCE.  173 

the  River  Ganges.  All  at  once  he  saw  a  grim-looking  tiger.  It  was  rush- 
ing down  the  hill-side  toward  him.  In  order  to  escape  the  ravenous  beast, 
he  was  on  the  point  of  plunging  into  the  river.  At  that  moment  a  crocodile 
popped  up  his  head  above  the  water.  The  traveler  was  overcome  with  horror. 
He  sank  to  the  ground.  At  the  same  instant  the  tiger  made  a  great  spring. 
It  fell  between  the  jaws  of  the  crocodile.  The  crocodile  dispatched  the  for- 
midable beast.  During  the  struggle  the  man  escaped. 

Miscellaneous  Exercises  in  Sentence-Building. 

A. 
Vary  the  expression  in  the  following  Simple  Sentences : 

Ex.  Of  all  countries  in  the  world,  Arabia  produces  the 
most  beautiful  horses. 

1 .  No  country  in  the  world  can  compete  with  Arabia  for 
the  beauty  of  its  horses. 

2.  For  the  production  of  beautiful  horses  Arabia  carries 
away  the  palm  from  all  other  countries  in  the  world. 

3.  The  horses  reared  in  Arabia  excel  in  beauty  those  of  any 
other  country  in  the  world. 

] .  The  elephant  surpasses  all  land-animals  in  size  and  strength.  2.  The 
young  of  all  animals  receive  pleasure  simply  from  the  exercise  of  their  bodily 
faculties.  3.  A  boundless  and  extraordinary  prospect  opened  from  the  sum- 
mit of  the  great  Pyramid.  4.  The  size  of  the  largest  mountain  is  very  trifling 
compared  to  the  whole  earth.  5.  Our  woolen  dress  is  the  product  of  the  joint 
labor  of  a  great  many  workmen.  6.  The  mariner's  compass  does  not  seem  to 
have  been  used  for  navigation  in  Europe  before  the  year  1420.  7.  Persuasion 
has  ever  been  deemed  better  than  force.  8.  The  warm  climate  of  Ceylon  is 
tempered  by  the  sea-breezes.  9.  The  whole  community  of  bees  pays  the  most 
respectful  attention  to  the  queen. 

B. 
Compose  Simple  Sentences  out  of  the  following  Statements: 

Ex.  (1.)  James  Watt  died  on  the  25th  of  August,  1819. 

(2.)  This  event  took  place  at  Heathfield,  near  Birmingham. 
(3.)  Watt  had  a  seat  at  Heathfield. 
(4.)  Watt  was  the  great  improver  of  the  steam-engine. 
(5.)  He  was  eighty-four  years  of  age. 

James  Watt,  the  great  improver  of  the  steam-engine,  died  on  the  25th  of  Au- 
gust, 1819,  at  his  seat  of  Heathfield,  near  Birmingham,  in  the  eighty-fourth 
year  of  his  age. 

1.  The  Turks  assaulted  Constantinople. 
The  assault  took  place  by  sea  and  land. 
The  assault  took  place  at  daybreak. 

The  customary  signal  of  the  morning  gun  was  omitted. 

2.  Our  little  habitation  was  situated  at  the  foot  of  a  sloping  hill. 
A  beautiful  underwood  sheltered  it  behind. 

A  prattling  river  ran  before  it. 
A  meadow  was  on  one  side. 
A  green  was  on  the  other. 


174  ANALYSIS   AND   CONSTRUCTION. 

3.  The  Federalists  secured  the  election  of  John  Adams. 
Washington  refused  to  be  re-elected  President. 
Adams  was  a  leading  member  of  the  Federalist  party. 

He  was  already  distinguished  by  his  political  services  during  the  Revo- 
lution. 

4.  The  Russians  were  advancing  on  their  left  to  the  brow  of  the  hill. 
Their  pace  was  an  easy  gallop. 

They  were  evidently  picked  soldiers. 

Their  light  blue  jackets  were  embroidered  with  silver  lace. 

5.  We  descried  a  herd  of  buffaloes.       * 
The  herd  was  about  two  miles  distant. 

We  cast  our  eyes  about  the  surrounding  waste. 
The  herd  was  quietly  grazing  near  a  small  strip  of  bushes. 
f>.  The  crew  got  safe  to  land. 

The  land  was  a  desolate  and  barren  island. 

The  crew  had  been  enduring  extreme  suffering  for  three  weeks. 

Their  suffering  was  unrelieved  even  by  hope. 

7.  The  great  battle  of  Lutzen  ended  in  victory  to  the  Swedes. 
The  date  of  the  battle  was  the  6th  of  November,  1662. 
The  leaders  were  Wallenstein  and  Gustavus. 

The  Swedes  gained  the  victory  at  the  expense  of  the  life  of  their  heroic 
king. 

8.  William  Tyndale  printed  the  first  edition  of  the  New  Testament  in  En- 

glish. 

Tyndale  was  an  accomplished  linguist. 

Tyndale  had  conceived  the  design  of  translating  the  Scriptures. 
This  translation  was  printed  at  Antwerp. 
Its  date  was  the  year  1526. 

C. 

Alter  the  following  SIMPLE  Sentences  into  COMPOUND: 
Ex.  Having  crossed  the  Alps,  I  can  quite  corroborate  your  opinion. 
I  have  crossed  the  Alps,  and  can  quite  corroborate  your  opinion. 

1.  The  Rhone,  flowing  into  the  Lake  of  Geneva,  emerges  from  it  at  the  town 

of  that  name. 

2.  The  cadi  having  caused  each  plaintiff  to  repeat  the  story,  neither  varied 

one  jot  from  his  original  statement. 

3.  In  consequence  of  his  carefulness  and  devotion  to  the  interest  of  his  em- 

ployers, he  rapidly  rose  in  his  profession. 

4.  After  a  thousand  years  of  fruitless  effort,  the  source  of  the  Nile  has  only 

of  late  been  discovered  by  Livingstone. 

5.  During  the  storm  of  the  following  night  the  vessel  sank. 

6.  Overcome  with  fatigue,  the  weary  traveler  sank  down  to  rest. 

7.  By  diligent  and  persevering  exertion,  the  young  artist  at  length  accom- 

plished his  design. 

8.  The  coral  insect,  barely  possessing  life,  is  hourly  creating  habitations  for 

man. 

9.  Robinson  Crusoe  was  very  much  surprised  at  seeing  the  print  of  a  man's 

foot  in  the  sand. 


THE  COMPOUND  SENTENCE.         .     175 
D. 

Combine  the  following  ELEMENTS,  each  set  into  a  COMPOUND 

Sentence : 

Ex.  The  captain  had  a  large  piece  of  boiled  meat  by  him. 
The  captain  withheld  his  aid. 
This  selfishness  was  detestable. 

The,  captain  had  a  large  piece  of  boiled  meat  by  him,  but  with  detestable 
selfishness  he  withheld  his  aid. 

1.  He  possessed  quick  perceptions. 
He  observed  accurately. 

He  was  able  to  place  his  right  hand  on  the  right  animal. 
He  did  so  without  hesitation. 

2.  Pope  was  not  content  to  satisfy. 
He  desired  to  excel. 

He  therefore  always  endeavored  to  do  his  best. 
He  did  not  court  the  candor  of  his  reader. 
He  dared  his  judgment. 
He  expected  no  indulgence  from  others. 
He  showed  none  to  himself. 

3.  Steam  has  increased  indefinitely  the  mass  of  human  comforts. 
Steam  has  increased  indefinitely  the  mass  of  human  enjoyments. 
Steam  has  rendered  cheap  the  materials  of  wealth  and  prosperity. 
Steam  has  rendered  accessible  the  materials  of  wealth  and  prosperity. 
It  has  done  so  all  over  the  world. 

4.  The  river  passes  through  the  populous  cities. 
The  river  passes  through  the  busy  haunts  of  men. 
It  tenders  its  services  on  every  side. 

It  becomes  the  ornament  of  the  country. 
It  becomes  the  support  of  the  country. 

5.  Ivanhoe  extricated  himself  from  his  fallen  horse. 
Ivanhoe  was  soon  on  foot. 

He  hastened  to  mend  his  fortune  with  his  sword. 
His  antagonist  rose  not. 

6.  In  Paris  the  Templars  had  got  possession  of  a  tract  of  ground. 
This  tract  was  equal  to  one  third  of  the  whole  city. 

They  covered  it  with  towers. 

They  covered  it  with  battlements. 

Within  the  fortress  they  lived  a  life  of  most  luxurious  self-indulgence. 

The  fortress  was  unapproachable. 

7.  After  a  few  rounds  the  columns  of  the  square  became  broken. 
The  columns  wavered  to  and  fro. 

They  broke. 

They  fled  over  the  brow  of  the  hill. 

They  left  behind  them  six  or  seven  distinct  lines  of  dead. 

These  lines  lay  very  close  to  each  other. 

These  lines  marked  the  passage  of  the  fatal  messengers. 

8.  The  electric  telegraph  was  invented  by  Professor  Morse. 
Professor  Morse  was  an  American. 

The  telegraph  has  greatly  facilitated  business. 

It  has  done  so  by  bringing  all  parts  of  the  world  into  communication. 


176  ANALYSIS   AND   CONSTRUCTION. 

E. 

Alter  the  following  SIMPLE  and  COMPOUND  Sentences  into 
COMPLEX : 

Ex.  1.  I  never  saw  so  pleasing  a  bird. 

I  never  saw  a  bird  that  pleased  me  so. 

2.  The  Jordan  rises  in  Lebanon  and  flows  into  the  Dead  Sea, 
The  Jordan,  which  rises  in  Lebanon,  flows,  etc. 

1.  I  suppose  the  birds  to  be  sand-pipers.  2.  In  getting  down  the  bank  to 
reach  one  of  them,  I  heard  something  plunge  into  the  water  near  me.  3.  A 
body  consisting  of  any  one  substance  can  not  be  decomposed.  4.  In  collect- 
ing honey,  bees  do  not  confine  themselves  solely  to  flowers.  5.  The  moisture 
in  the  upper  regions  being  cooled  down,  the  water  falling  from  it  solidifies. 
6.  The  mode  of  ascent  has  been  frequently  described,  and  yet  it  does  not  ap- 
pear to  be  generally  understood.  7.  The  extent  of  their  contemplated  pro- 
cedure against  the  monarchy  can  never  be  known,  Pym  and  Hampden  hav- 
ing died  early.  8.  The  amalgamation  of  race  was  carried  on  in  the  East,  and 
not  less  so  in  the  West.  9.  Gesler,  to  try  the  temper  of  the  Swiss,  set  up  the 
ducal  hat  of  Austria  on  a  pole  in  the  market-place  of  Altdorf. 

F. 

Combine  the  STATEMENTS  in  each  Paragraph  into  a  COM- 
PLEX Sentence: 

Ex.  They  resolved  upon  making  a  couple  of  lances  to  defend  themselves 
against  the  white  bears. 

They  did  not  know  how  to  procure  arrows  at  present. 

The  white  bears  are  far  the  most  furious  of  their  kind. 

They  had  great  reason  to  dread  their  attacks. 

Not  knowing  how  to  procure  arrows  at  present,  they  resolved  upon  making  a 
couple  of  lances  to  defend  themselves  against  the  white  bears,  far  the  most  fe- 
rocious of  their  kind,  whose  attacks  they  had  great  reason  to  dread. 

1.  Out  of  this  clay  they  found  means  to  form  a  utensil. 
This  utensil  might  serve  for  a  lamp. 

They  proposed  to  keep  it  constantly  burning  with  the  fat  of  animals. 
They  might  kill  the  animals. 

2.  Washington  was  sometimes  engaged  in  labors. 

The  children  of  wealthy  parents  would  now  account  these  labors  se- 
vere. 

He  thus  acquired  firmness  of  frame. 
He  thus  acquired  a  disregard  of  hardship. 

3.  Tin  is  a  metal. 

Ancient  Britain  was  most  famous  for  tin. 

The  Phoenicians  were  first  induced  to  visit  Britain  for  tin. 

4.  More  than  half  a  century  ago,  London  began  to  be  lighted  with  gas. 
This  was  the  first  attempt  to  introduce  it  into  the  streets  and  buildings 

of  a  city. 
One  or  two  inhabitants  had  so  lighted  their  houses  some  years  earlier. 

5.  A  little  fern  pushed  her  head  through  the  ground. 
This  was  on  a  bright  May  morning. 


THE  COMPOUND  SENTENCE.  177 

The  fern  was  ready  to  begin  unrolling  her  head. 

She  first  looked  around. 

This  course  became  a  wise  fern. 

6.  He  spoke  to  the  king  like  a  rough  man. 
I  think  this  myself. 

He  was  a  rough,  angry  man. 
He  did  nothing  more. 

7.  Coal  in  particular  was  never  seen  except  in  certain  districts. 
Coal  was  produced  in  certain  districts. 

Coal  could  be  carried  by  sea  to  certain  districts. 
Coal  was  indeed  always  known  in  the  south  of  England  by  the  name 
of  sea-coal. 

8.  Certain  species  of  quadrupeds  are  provided  with  soft  glossy  coverings. 
These  coverings  bear  the  name  of  fur. 

It  is  chiefly  the  smaller  species  of  quadrupeds. 

These  coverings  are  found  in  the  greatest  perfection  in  the  coldest 

countries. 
They  are  most  wanted  in  such  countries. 

9.  The  ingenuity  of  man  has  made  a  lever  of  the  wind. 
The  lever  spares  him  an  immensity  of  toil. 

This  lever  is  applied  to  machinery. 

10.  The  Spaniards  were  surrounded  by  many  of  the  natives. 
The  Spaniards  were  thus  employed. 

The  natives  gazed  with  silent  admiration  upon  their  actions. 
They  could  not  comprehend  these  actions. 
They  did  not  foresee  the  consequence  of  these  actions. 

G. 

Construct  a  NAKRATIVE  out  of  the  following  facts ,  introduc- 
ing the  several  kinds  of  Sentences : 

Cotton. 

Cotton  is  a  white  substance.  Cotton  grows  in  the  seed-pod  of  a  plant.  It 
is  gathered  from  the  pod.  It  is  cleaned  qnt  from  the  seed.  It  is  sent  to  the 
manufacturer.  The  manufacturer  makes  it  by  the  help  of  machinery  into 
thread  or  yarn.  He  also  makes  it  into  cloth.  Cotton  is  used  very  exten- 
sively as  material  for  clothing.  Its  combination  of  warmth  and  lightness  fits 
it  for  a  great  variety  of  climate.  Its  cheapness  brings  it  within  reach  of  the 
poorest.  It  is  grown  largely  in  India  and  Egypt.  The  finest  kind  is  ob- 
tained from  America. 

Iron. 

Iron  may  be  said  to  be  the  most  useful  of  metals.  It  is.  employed  in  all  the 
more  important  processes  of  human  labor.  We  are  largely  dependent  on  it 
for  carrying  on  the  business  of  life.  We  are  largely  dependent  on  it  for  en- 
joying the  comforts  of  life.  The  plow  is  made  of  iron.  We  turn  up  the 
ground  with  the  plow.  Boilers  are  made  of  it.  We  prepare  our  food  in  boil- 
ers. Pens  are  made  of  it.  We  write  with  pens.  Railways  are  made  of  it. 
We  travel  on  railways.  Iron  is  employed  in  three  states.  Cast-iron  is  so 
called  from  being  cast  in  moulds.  Cast-iron  is  used  for  railing,  pots,  and 
grates.  Wrought-iron  is  so  called  for  being  wrought  by  the  hammer.  This 

H  2 


178  ANALYSIS   AND   CONSTRUCTION. 

process  gives  it  greater  consistency.  Wrought-iron  is  used  for  railways. 
Wrought-iron  is  used  for  all  articles  where  toughness  is  required.  Steel  is 
iron  tempered  so  as  to  become  very  hard  and  fine.  Steel  is  used  for  edged 
tools  and  fine  instruments.  The  most  useful  metal  is  also  the  most  abundant. 
This  is  a  happy  circumstance  that  Britain  abounds  in  iron.  The  principal 
mines  are  in  Staffordshire,  Wales,  and  the  west  of  Scotland. 

The  Wind  and  the  Sun. 

A  dispute  once  arose  between  the  wind  and  the  sun  which  of  them  is  the 
stronger  of  the  two.  They  agreed  to  decide  it  by  this  consideration.  One  of 
them  would  sooner  make  a  traveler  lay  aside  his  cloak.  He  was  to  be  ac- 
counted the  more  powerful.  The  wind  blew  a  blast  with  all  its  might  and  main. 
This  blast  was  cold  as  a  Thracian  storm.  This  blast  was  fierce  as  a  Thracian 
storm.  He  blew  stronger.  The  traveler  wrapped  his  cloak  closer  about  him. 
He  grasped  it  tighter  with  his  hands.  The  sun  then  broke  out.  With  his 
welcome  beams  he  dispersed  the  vapor.  With  his  welcome  beams  he  dis- 
persed the  cold.  The  traveler  felt  the  genial  warmth.  The  sun  shone  bright- 
er and  brighter.  The  traveler  sat  down.  The  traveler  was  overpowered  with 
the  heat.  The  traveler  cast  his  cloak  on  the  ground. 


PART  IV. 

ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 

'  Grammar  is  a  means ;  composition,  the  end.' — Angus. 

I.  Suggestions  for  Teachers. 

There  are  few  things  that  are  more  difficult  to  teach  suc- 
cessfully than  is  composition-writing.  After  the  pupil  has 
acquired  some  knowledge  of  grammatical  forms,  and  some 
skill  in  analyzing  sentences,  the  art  of  composing  still  lies 
beyond. 

The  good  old-fashioned  way  of  requiring  scholars  "  to  write 
a  composition  once  a  month,"  on  random  subjects  chosen  by 
themselves,  does  not  tend  to  give  great  skill  "  in  the  art  of 
writing  the  English  language."  It  is  certain  that  every  child 
leaving  public  school  at  thirteen  years  of  age  ought  to  be 
able  to  write  at  least  a  business  letter  neatly  and  correctly, 
if  not  elegantly  ;  it  is  equally  certain  that  comparatively  few 
pupils  can  do  this. 

The  art  of  teaching  elementary  composition- writing  can 
not  well  be  reduced  to  any  very  definite  rules.  It  will  de- 
pend to  a  very  great  extent  on  the  good  sense  and  the  tact 
of  teachers  in  adapting  simple  exercises  to  the  capacity  of 
the  pupils  under  instruction. 

The  following  suggestions  may  prove  of  some  practical 
value : 

Direction  I. — Train  pupils  to  correct  one  another's  compo- 
sitions. 

Undoubtedly  one  reason  why  so  few  composition  exercises  are  required 
in  school  is  the  drudgery  of  correcting  them.  A  teacher  having  a  class  of 
say  forty  scholars  can  not  carefully  correct  one  set  of  exercises  in  less  ttten 
five  or  six  hours,  and  of  all  tasks  that  of  correcting  the  compositions  of  be- 
ginners is  the  most  thankless.  By  allowing  the  members  of  a  class  to  in- 
terchange their  exercises,  the  whole  work  of  correcting  and  criticising  may, 
under  the  direction  of  the  teacher,  be  done  in  the  school-room  in  half  an 
hour.  To  any  pupil,  reading,  correcting,  and  criticising  the  composition 
of  a  schoolmate  will  be  quite  as  valuable  a  drill  as  the  original  labor  of 
writing  one.  The  first  attempts  may  be  rather  awkward,  but  after  a  few 
trials  the  corrections  will  be  definite  enough  for  all  practical  purposes. 


180  ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

Direction  II. — Require  pupils  to  rewrite  every  corrected 
composition. 

Direction  III. — After  the  rewritten  composition  is  criti- 
cised, it  should  be  copied  a  third  time. 

But  little  attention  will  be  paid  to  corrected  errors  unless  the  pupil  is 
made  to  rewrite  the  exercise.  For  the  sake  of  avoiding  this  extra  labor, 
pupils  will  soon  learn  to  write  with  care. 

Direction  IV. — Show  your  pupils  how  to  divide  a  composi- 
tion into  paragraphs,  and  require  them  to  put  every  exercise 
into  paragraphs. 

Direction  V. — Require  pupils  to  carefully  punctuate  compo- 
sitions, at  least  to  the  extent  of  using  periods  and  commas. 

Direction  VI. — If  you  would  have  pupils  acquire  either 
readiness  or  skill  in  the  use  of  written  language,  require 
them  to  write  some  kind  of  a  composition  at  least  once  a 
week ;  or,  better  still,  a  short  exercise  twice  a  week. 

Direction  VII. — As  a  general  rule,  assign  and  explain  some 
subject,  and  require  the  whole  class  to  write  upon  it. 

Direction  VIII. — Do  not  select  abstract  subjects  for  be- 
ginners. 

Direction  IX. — Never  assign  a  subject  that  the  pupils  know 
nothing  about. 

Direction  X. — For  a  few  months  the  work  of  any  class  not 
trained  to  write  should  consist  of  exercises  in  writing  from 
memory  short  stories  out  of  the  Readers,  in  writing  abstracts 
of  history  or  geography  lessons,  in  writing  imaginary  letters, 
in  writing  simple  descriptions  of  familiar  scenes  or  objects, 
and  in  converting  poetry  into  prose.  Occasionally  the  pupils 
should  be  allowed  to  select  their  own  subjects,  and  to  exer- 
cise their  own  imagination  and  taste  in  their  own  untram- 
meled  manner. 

*  II.  Suggestions  for  Pupils. 

Direction  I. — When  your  subject  is  assigned,  think  it  over 
carefully,  and  map  out  in  your  mind  some  kind  of  a  plan. 

Direction  II. — Do  not  attempt  to  write  on  a  subject  that 
you  know  nothing  about. 

Direction  III.— Do  not  run  together  a  string  of  propositions 


/* 


or  THE 


SUGGESTIONS//^  JJ  J  V  £  R  $  I  ?  Y  J 

^V  >v 

connected  by  conjunctions  and  relative  pronouns  into  long, 
straggling  sentences,  but,  as  a  general  thing,  write  short  seri- 
tences,  each  expressing  a  complete  thougntTVAniI  WTOnever 
you  have  written  a  very  long  and  involved  sentence,  break  it 
up  into  two  or  three  brief  and  clear  sentences. 

Direction  IV. — Do  not  use  several  words  to  convey  what 
may  be  expressed  by  one  word. 

Direction  V. — After  you  have  written  the  first  draft  of 
your  exercise,  go  carefully  over  it,  correct,  cross  out,  inter- 
line, condense,  and  then  recopy  it. 

Direction  VI. — In  correcting,  examine  in  reference  to  the 
following  points : 

1.  Spelling. 

2.  Capital  letters. 

3.  Correct  use  of  words. 

4.  Grammatical  construction. 

5.  Punctuation. 

6.  Division  into  paragraphs. 

7.  Condensation ;  strike  out  every  word,  phrase,  and  clause  that  you  can 

without  destroying  the  thought  to  be  expressed. 

Direction  VII. — Whenever  you  make  any  marked  change, 
or  any  new  turn  in  the  thought  to  be  expressed,  denote  it  by 
a  new  paragraph. 

Direction  VIII. — Acquire  the  habit  of  punctuating  your  sen- 
tences as  you  write  them, 

Direction  IX. — Whenever  you  find  much  difficulty  in  com- 
pleting a  long  sentence,  you  may  be  certain  that  you  do  not 
clearly  understand  what  you  want  to  express. 

Direction  X. — If  you  find  great  difficulty  in  writing  about 
any  particular  subject,  you  may  be  certain  that  you  do  not 
clearly  understand  it. 

Direction  XL — The  greatest  charm  of  all  writing  is  natu- 
ralness; hence  do  not  be  afraid  to  express  your  own  thought, 
so  far  as  matter  goes,  just  as  you  would  speak  it  out  to  a 
friend. 

Direction  XII. — Never  delay  beginning  your  composition 
until  the  day  on  which  you  are  required  to  have  it ;  if  you 
do  so,  your  exercise  will  in  all  probability  be  a  failure. 


182  ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

3.  Review  of  Capitalizing  and  Punctuation. 

Cardinal  Rule. 

tOT  To  the  Pupil. — Commit  this  rule  to  memory,  and  practice  it  till  its 
application  becomes  as  natural  to  you  as  breathing. 

Begin  every  declarative  sentence  with  a  capital  letter,  and 
close  it  with  a  full  stop. 

Capitals. 

Write  every  Proper  JVame,  and  every  adjective  derived  from 
a  Proper  Noun  (as  English,  American),  with  an  initial  capital. 

Write  the  pronoun  I  in  a  capital. 

When  you  introduce  a  direct  quotation  in  a  sentence  (that 
is,  when  the  very  words  of  the  speaker  or  writer  are  given), 
begin  the  quotation  with  a  capital. 

Commas. 

Mark  off  co-ordinate  words  and  phrases — such  as  the  icords 
in  a  string  of  nouns,  adjectives,  or  verbs — by  means  of  com- 
mas ;  as,  May  she  reign  over  a  free,  a  happy,  and  a  religious 
people. 

The  boast  of  heraldry,  the  pomp  of  power, 
And  all  that  beauty,  all  that  wealth  e'er  gave. 

Mark  off  adverbial phm&es- at  the  beginning  of  sentences  by 
commas  /  as,  On  the  following  morning,  Napoleon  attacked 
the  enemy. 

Mark  off  participial  phrases,  and  independent  and  apposi- 
tional  constructions,  by  commas;  as,  Relying  on  promised  aid, 
Paul  Jones  attacked  the  Serapis.  Mr.  President,  I  did  not  in- 
tend to  speak  this  evening.  Paul,  the  apostle  of  the  Gentiles, 
was  born  at  Tarsus. 

Mark  off  parenthetical  clauses  by  commas;  as,  The  project, 
it  is  certain,  will  succeed. 

Mark  off  the  clauses  of  a  loosely-connected  compound  sen- 
tence by  commas ;  as,  This  rumor  runs  through  the  crowd  in 
a  moment,  and  fills  them  with  dismay. 

As  a  general  tiling,  mark  off  the  subordinate  propositions  in 
complex  sentences  by  commas  /  as,  In  a  moment  ten  thousand 
persons,  who  crowded  the  great  hall,  replied  with  a  shout. 

Mark  off  independent  adverbs  and  conjunctions — such  as 

HOWEVER,  MOREOVER,  BESIDES,  INDEED,  LASTLY,  CERTAINLY — 

by  commas. 


CAPITALIZING   AND   PUNCTUATION.  183 

Finally,  DO  NOT  USE  THE  PEPPEK-BOX  OF  COMMAS  TOO 

FREELY. 

Semicolons. 

Separate  by  semicolons  the  members  of  a  loosely-connected 
compound  sentence,  especially  members  that  hinge  on  a  'but? 
Straws  swim  on  the  surface ;  but  pearls  lie  on  the  bottom. 

Separate  by  semicolons  the  different  propositions  that  are 
strung  together -,  without  connectives,  into  a  compound  sentence. 
The  pride  of  wealth  is  contemptible ;  the  pride  of  learning  is 
pitiable ;  the  pride  of  dignity  is  ridiculous ;  but  the  pride  of 
bigotry  is  insupportable. 

OBSERVATION. — Many  authors  would  very  properly  make  each  of  these 
propositions  an  independent  sentence,  and  put  full  stops  after  each. 

The  Colon. 

Probably  the  pupil  will  rarely  have  occasion  to  use  the  co- 
lon, so  he  need  not  puzzle  his  head  about  the  niceties  of  its  use. 

The  Dash. 

The  dash  is  used  to  denote  abruptness,  to  show  that  a  signifi- 
cant pause  is  intended,  or  an  unexpected  change  in  the  senti- 
ment;  as,  Here  lies  the  great — false  marble,  where  ? 

Nothing  but  sordid  dust  lies  here. 
Who  sometimes  counsel  taks't,  and — sometimes  tea. 

i^°  The  less  the  young  writer  employs  the  dash  in  his  early  composi- 
tions, the  better. 

The  Parenthesis. 

The  parenthesis  is  used  to  inclose  words  that  do  not  enter  into 
the  construction  of  the  sentence,  but  that  are  inserted  for  expla- 
nation or  for  reference;  as,  "  Your  honor,"  continued  Trim, 
"  might  sit  in  your  arm-chair  (pointing  to  it)  this  fine  weather." 
OBSERVATION. — The  dash  very  easily  takes  the  place  of  the  parenthesis. 
The  young  writer  will  do  well  to  employ  the  parenthesis  as  little  as  possi- 
ble.    It  is  often  only  a  lazy  mode  of  doing  what  would  have  been  done  bet- 
ter in  a  regular  sentence,  with  some  little  alteration  of  the  construction. 

Point  of  Interrogation. 

Use  this  mark  at  the  end  of  a  question;  as,  Where  are  you  ? 

This  mark  must  not  be  employed  when  it  is  only  said  that 

a  question  was  asked  ;  as, '  She  inquired  where  I  lived.'     The 

interrogative  form  might  be  employed  thus  :  She  said  to  me, 

"  Where  do  you  live  ?" 

OBSERVATION. — Note  in  the  last  sentence  that  'Where  do  you  live?'  is 
introduced  as  a  direct  quotation,  and  hence  the  first  word  has  an  initial 
capital. 


184  ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

Point  of  Exclamation. 
This  mark,  sometimes  called  the  note  of  admiration,  is  used 

to  emphasize  a  sentence  expressing  strong  or  sudden  feeling. 

Hence  most  interjectional  words  and  phrases  take  this  mark ; 

as,  How  noble  an  action  !     Alas  !  poor  Yorick  ! 

OBSERVATION. — Silly  letter- writers  sometimes  stand  up  three  or  four  of 
these  marks  after  a  single  sentence — genuine  '  notes  of  admiration'  of  their 
own  conceit.  Look  through  twenty  pages  of  a  pure  and  powerful  writer 
like  Macaulay,  and  see  if  you  can  find  one  of  these  signs  of  the  forcible- 
feeble. 

Quotation  Marks. 

Inverted  commas,  either  single  or  double,  are  used  to  inclose 
a  word,  phrase,  or  sentence  that  is  quoted,  or  to  mark  that  you 
are  using  the  very  words  of  a  speaker ;  as,  "What  a  wonder- 
ful piece  of  work  is  man  !"  exclaims  Shakspeare. 

If  the  quotation  is  interrupted  by  an  expression  of  the 
c  said  he'  sort,  each  part  of  the  quotation  is  inclosed  by  the 
marks  of  quotation,  and  the  interrupting  expression  is  fenced 
off  by  commas ;  as, "  I  have  lived,"  said  the  old  man, "  a  great 
many  years  in  poverty." 

GENERAL  OBSERVATION. — From  these  rules  you  see  that 
punctuation,  leaving  out  its  niceties,  is  really  not  a  difficult 
matter  at  all.  There  is  no  set  way  of  punctuating.  If  one 
has  a  method  founded  on  sense,  and  is  consistent  with  this 
method,  no  more  can  be  asked.  However,  if  you  begin  every 
sentence  with  a  capital  letter,  end  it  with  its  appropriate  ter- 
minal mark,  and  separate  by  commas  those  obviously  sepa- 
rate parts  that  you  would  divide  by  slight  pauses  in  speak- 
ing, your  punctuation  will  not  be  very  bad.  When  you  have 
learned  this  much,  all  the  rest  will  come  to  you  by  practice. 

4.  Outline  of  Exercises  in  Composition-Writing. 

Combine  the  Sentences  in  the  following  Paragraphs  so  as  to  form  a  connected 
Narrative : 

Exercise  I. 

An  old  man  was  on  the  point  of  death.  He  called  his  sons  to  his  bedside. 
He  ordered  them  to  break  a  bundle  of  arrows.  The  young  men  were  strong. 
They  could  not  break  the  bundle.  He  took  it  in  his  turn.  He  untied  it. 
He  easily  broke  each  arrow  singly.  He  then  turned  toward  his  sons.  He 
said  to  them,  Mark  the  effect  of  union.  United  like  a  bundle,  you  will  be  in- 
vincible. Divided,  you  will  be  broken  like  reeds. 

One  way  of  combining. 

An  old  man  on  the  point  of  death  called  his  sons  to  his  bedside,  and  or- 


OUTLINE    OF   EXEKCISES   IN   COMPOSITION-WHITING.       185 

dered  them  to  break  a  bundle  of  arrows.  The  young  men,  though  strong, 
being  unable  to  do  so,  he  took  the  bundle  in  his  turn,  untied  it,  and  easily 
broke  each  arrow  singly.  Then  turning  toward  his  sons,  he  said  to  them, 
Mark  the  effect  of  union.  United  like  a  bundle,  you  will  be  invincible ;  di- 
vided, you  will  be  broken  like  reeds. 

Another  mode  of  combining. 

An  old  man,  being  on  the  point  of  death,  called  his  sons  to  his  bedside,  and 
ordered  them  to  break  a  bundle  of  arrows.  Strong  as  they  were,  they  were 
unable  to  break  this  bundle ;  so  he  took  it  in  his  turn,  and,  having  untied  it, 
easily  broke  each  arrow  singly.  Turning  toward  his  sons,  he  said  to  them, 
"  United,  you  can  not  be  overpowered ;  divided,  you  will  be  broken  as  easily 
as  reeds." 

NOTE. — No  two  scholars  will  hit  upon  exactly  the  same  form  of  expres- 
sion.    Pupils  must  try  to  combine  in  their  own  way. 

Exercise  II. 

Early  History  of  France. 

France  was  anciently  called  Gaul.  It  was  conquered  by  Julius  Caesar. 
After  that  the  inhabitants  adopted  the  manners  of  the  Romans.  Gaul  was 
next  invaded  by  the  Franks.  They  were  of  German  origin.  From  these 
people  the  country  derives  its  present  name.  Pharamond  was  king  of  the 
Franks.  He  was  the  founder  of  the  French  monarchy.  Clovis  was  a  still 
more  famous  warrior.  He  made  Paris  his  capital.  Before  his  time  the 
Franks  were  pagans.  Clovis  embraced  Christianity.  Charlemagne  was  the 
greatest  of  the  Carlovingian  kings.  He  lived  between  the  eighth  and  ninth 
centuries.  He  made  conquests  in  Germany,  Spain,  and  Italy.  He  founded 
the  temporal  power  of  the  Pope. 

One  way  of  combining. 

After  France,  which  was  anciently  called  Gaul,  was  conquered  by  Julius 
Ca3sar,  the  inhabitants  adopted  the  manners  of  the  Romans.  The  Franks,  a 
people  of  German  origin,  next  invaded  Gaul,  and  from  them  the  country  de- 
rived its  present  name.  Pharamond,  king  of  the  Franks,  was  the  founder  of 
the  French  monarchy.  Clovis,  one  of  his  successors,  and  a  still  greater  war- 
rior, embraced  Christianity,  and  made  Paris  his  capital.  Before  his  time  the 
Franks  were  pagans.  Charlemagne,  the  greatest  of  the  Carlovingian  kings, 
made  conquests  in  Germany,  Spain,  and  Italy,  and  founded  the  temporal  pow- 
er of  the  Pope.  He  lived  between  the  eighth  and  ninth  centuries. 

Exercise  III. 

The  Hot  Springs  of  Iceland. 

Hot  springs  abound  in  Iceland.  The  most  celebrated  are  the  Geysers. 
They  lie  in  gently  sloping  ground  at  the  foot  of  a  hill,  in  a  tract  filled  with 
numerous  hot  springs.  The  columns  of  steam  from  these  springs  rise  into 
the  atmosphere.  They  may  be  seen  at  the  distance  of  miles.  Near  this  tract 
rises  a  large  circular  mound.  This  mound  is  formed  by  the  depositions  of 
the  Great  Geyser,  an  intermitting  fountain.  This  fountain  throws  out  water 
at  certain  intervals.  The  diameter  of  the  basin  is  fifty-six  feet  in  one  direc- 
tion. It  is  forty-six  in  another.  There  is  a  pipe  in  the  centre  seventy-eight 
feet  in  depth,  with  a  diameter  of  from  eight  to  ten  feet.  From  this  pipe  col- 
umns of  hot  water  are  projected  with  amazing  velocity.  The  columns  are  sur- 


186  ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

rounded  by  steam.     They  rise  as  high  as  seventy  feet.     These  jets  are  accom- 
panied by  loud  reports.     They  resemble  the  discharge  of  a  park  of  artillery. 

Exercise  IV. 

The  Battle  of  Hastings. 

Harold  was  at  York  celebrating  his  victory  over  the  Norwegians.  A  mes- 
senger came  in  haste  to  tell  him  that  William  had  landed  on  the  southern 
coast.  He  had  planted  his  banner  on  English  ground.  Harold  marched  to- 
ward the  south  with  his  victorious  army.  He  published  on  his  way  an  or- 
der that  all  the  nobles  should  arm  their  forces.  They  were  to  repair  with 
them  to  London.  The  men  of  the  west  came  without  delay.  The  men  of 
the  north  were  more  tardy  on  account  of  the  distance.  There  was,  neverthe- 
less, reason  to  believe  that  the  English  king  would  in  a  few  days  be  surround- 
ed by  a  hundred  thousand  men.  He  could  not  restrain  his  eagerness  to  come 
up  with  the  invaders.  He  wished  to  chastise  them.  They  were  committing 
the  most  cruel  ravages  upon  the  defenseless  natives.  He  did  not  wait  for 
these  re-enforcements.  This  precipitancy  of  Harold  was  his  ruin.  He  .staked 
all  on  a  decisive  engagement.  He  should  have  worn  out  the  invading  army 
by  delay,  and  a  harassing  system  of  warfare.  He  came  up  with  the  Normans 
at  Hastings.  His  force  was  inferior.  The  battle  was  long  and  desperate. 
William  was  a  skillful  general.  All  his  energies  were  thoroughly  taxed.  He 
was  on  the  very  brink  of  ruin.  His  foresight  and  craft  proved  too  much  for 
the  headlong  courage  of  the  Anglo-Saxons.  Their  king  fell  pierced  by  an 
arrow.  The  Normans  finally  remained  masters  of  the  bloody  field. 

Exercise  V. 

Anecdote  of  Frederick  the  Great.  * 

One  day  Frederick,  king  of  Prussia,  rang  the  bell.  Nobody  came.  He 
opened  the  door.  He  found  his  page  asleep  in  an  arm-chair.  He  advanced 
toward  him.  He  was  going  to  awake  him.  A  letter  was  in  the  page's  pock- 
et. The  king  perceived  it.  He  was  curious  to  know  what  it  contained.  He 
took  it.  He  read  it.  It  was  a  letter  from  the  mother  of  the  young  man. 
She  thanked  him  for  sending  a  portion  of  his  wages  to  comfort  her  in  her  dis- 
tress. The  king  read  the  letter.  He  took  a  purse  of  ducats.  He  slipped  it 
with  the  letter  into  the  page's  pocket.  He  returned  safely  to  his  chamber. 
A  short  time  afterward  he  rang  very  loud.  The  page  awakens.  He  comes 
to  the  king.  "  You  have  slept  well,"  says  the  king.  The  page  endeavors  to 
excuse  himself.  In  his  confusion  he  puts  his  hand  into  his  pocket.  He  feels 
the  purse.  He  draws  it  out.  He  is  overwhelmed  with  grief  and  astonish- 
ment. He  turns  pale.  He  looks  at  the  king.  He  sheds  a  torrent  of  tears, 
without  being  able  to  speak  a  word.  "What  is  the  matter?"  inquires  the 
king.  "Sire,"  said  the  young  man,  throwing  himself  on  his  knees,  "some 
one  seeks  my  ruin.  I  know  not  what  money  this  is."  "My  friend,"  says  the 
king,  "God  often  sends  us  good  in  sleep.  Send  your  mother  the  money. 
Assure  her  that  I  will  take  care  of  you  both." 

Exercise  VI. 

In  the  next  four  Exercises  are  given  merely  the  heads  of  a 
composition.  Write  these  hints  out  as.  in  the  following 
model : 


OUTLINE    OF   EXEKCISES   IN   COMPOSITION-WHITING.      187 


The  Cow. 

HEADS. — The  most  useful  of  horned  animals ;  its  flesh  ;  articles  made  of 
its  skin ;  uses  of  its  horns  ;  the  hair ;  the  bones ;  importance  of  milk  •,  the 
calf;  use  of  its  skin. 

EXPANDED. — Of  all  horned  animals  the  cow  is  the  most  useful.  Its  flesh 
is  one  of  the  most  necessary  articles  of  food  to  man ;  and  the  purposes  to 
which  the  various  parts  of  its  body  are  applied  are  almost  innumerable.  With- 
out its  skin  we  could  scarcely  obtain  covering  for  our  feet,  the  boots  and 
shoes  that  we  wear  being  almost  wholly  made  from  the  skin,  which  is,  besides, 
manufactured  into  an  endless  variety  of  necessary  commodities.  Mixed  with 
lime,  its  hair  serves  to  make  mortar ;  its  horns  are  converted  into  combs,  knife- 
handles,  boxes,  drinking  vessels,  spoons,  and  other  useful  articles;  and  its 
bones  are  equally  serviceable  for  domestic  and  ornamental  purposes.  The 
milk  of  the  cow  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  of  animal  products,  being  in  ev- 
ery-day  use  as  a  wholesome  and  nourishing  article  of  diet ;  and  it  is  from 
milk  that  butter  and  cheese  are  made.  The  young  of  the  cow  is  called  a 
calf;  its  skin  is  made  into  fine  boots  and  shoes,  parchment,  and  the  binding 
of  books. 

Exercise  VII. 

The  Dog. 

His  qualities  ;  sagacity,  vigilance ;  fitted  to  be  the  companion  and  guardian 
of  man ;  the  only  animal  that  always  recognizes  his  master  and  the  habitual 
visitors  of  his  family ;  his  services  in  assisting  man  to  subdue  and  keep  other 
animals  in  subjection  :  the  great  variety  of  the  dog  species.  The  Newfound- 
land dog — his  size  ;  his  web-feet ;  his  usefulness  in  saving  people  who  are  in 
danger  of  drowning.  m  The  dogs  of  St.  Bernard — their  sagacity ;  their  em- 
ployment in  rescuing  travelers  who  have  been  lost  in  the  snows  of  the  Alps. 
The  shepherd's  dog — his  docility  ;  his  watchfulness  ;  his  intelligence  in  obey- 
ing the  voice  and  gestures  of  his  master.  Hunting-dogs — their  keen  sense 
of  smell ;  the  setter  and  pointer  stand  still  when  they  discover  the  game ; 
their  natural  instinct  to  seize  it  overcome  by  training.  The  Esquimaux  dog 
— his  use  in  the  sledge ;  his  power  of  endurance  ;  his  assistance  to  European 
explorers  of  the  Arctic  regions.  The  domestic  watch-dog — his  value  as  a 
protector  from  the  midnight  robber ;  sense  of  security  arising  from  depend- 
ence on  his  courage  and  watchfulness. 

Exercise  VIII. 

The  Whale. 

The  largest  of  all  animals  ;  belongs  to  the  class  mammalia ;  how  the  whale 
differs  from  the  true  fish ;  displays  great  affection  for  its  young ;  protects 
and  defends  them  when  attacked ;  the  different  kinds  of  whale  ;  the  whale  of 
the  north  Polar  regions  ;  its  value ;  whalers  annually  set  out  from  all  the  mar- 
itime countries  in  Europe ;  American  whalers  numerous  and  enterprising ; 
method  of  attacking  the  whale  ;  the  boats ;  the  line  ;  its  enormous  length  ; 
the  harpoon ;  the  skill  and  boldness  necessary  for  its  use ;  the  hazard  of  the 
chase  ;  the  enormous  power  of  the  animal ;  the  stroke  of  his  tail ;  a  boat  and 
its  crew  sometimes  sent  up  in  the  air ;  the  whaler  itself  has  been  foundered 
by  the  charge  of  the  infuriated  animal ;  uses  of  the  whale  ;  blubber ;  whale- 
bone ;  whence  the  latter  is  obtained  ;  produce  and  value  of  a  single  fish  ;  three 


188  ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

a  profitable  cargo ;  the  spermaceti  whale ;  the  South  Seas  ;  what  is  obtained 
from  it ;  what  part  of  the  animal ;  its  uses. 

Exercise  IX. 

Description  of  Printing. 

First  step  in  the  process  ;  the  setting  up  of  the  types ;  what  these  are ;  sev- 
eral pieces  of  metal  forming  the  letters  of  the  alphabet ;  arranged  in  wooden 
cases  containing  a  box  for  every  letter ;  the  words  are  thus  set  up,  letter  by 
letter,  in  an  instrument  called  a  composing-stick ;  these  are  made  so  as  to  suit 
a  longer  or  shorter  line ;  the  lines  are  then  made  into  pages ;  the  pages  are 
fixed  into  an  iron  frame  or  chase ;  it  is  then  put  on  to  the  printing-press ;  the 
surface  of  the  pages  are  now  covered  with  ink  by  a  roller ;  a  sheet  of  paper 
is  placed  over  them ;  they  are  pressed  under  a  flat  cylindrical  surface ;  the 
pressure  of  this  cylinder  or  plate  stamps  the  characters  on  the  paper ;  the  im- 
pressions can  thus  be  repeated  at  pleasure ;  extraordinary  speed  of  the  steam 
printing  machine  ;  number  of  copies  produced  in  an  hour. 

5.  Abstracts  from  Memory. 

Another  excellent  exercise  in  composition -writing  is  to 
write  from  memory  an  abstract  of  a  selection  read  to  the  class 
by  the  teacher. 

For  illustration,  two  exercises  are  selected  from  the  compo- 
sitions of  a  first-grade  class  in  one  of  our  larger  cities. 

The  following  extract  was  read  to  the  class,  and  the  schol- 
ars were  lequired  to  write  what  they  remembered. 

A  CENTURY  OF  PROGRESS. 

1.  The  century  has  witnessed  remarkable  intellectual  progress.     The  sure 
foundation  of  this  is  the  American  common-school  system,  which  is  estab- 
lished in  nearly  all  the  states,  and  which,  with  the  Prussian  system,  is  the 
best  and  broadest  educational  organization  in  the  world.    There  are  now  over 
seven  million  children  attending  the  public  schools  of  the  United  States.    Our 
country  has  over  four  hundred  colleges  and  universities. 

2.  During  colonial  times,  Americans  were  almost  entirely  dependent  on  the 
mother  country  for  intellectual  food.    This  state  of  things  continued  for  many 
years  after  the  founding  of  the  government.    It  used,  accordingly,  to  be  sneer- 
ingly  asked, ''Who  reads  an  American  book  ?"    This  question  would  not  now 
be  asked;  or,  if  it  were,  it  would  be  answered  highly  to  the  credit  of  the 
United  States.    During  the  past  fifty  years,  American  authors  of  great  merit, 
in  all  branches  of  literature  and  science,  have  arisen,  and  their  works  are  read 
and  appreciated  throughout  the  civilized  world.     Among  historians  may  be 
named  Prescott,  Bancroft,  and  Motley.    Among  poets  may  be  named  Bryant, 
Whittier,  Simms,  Holmes,  Poe,  and  Longfellow.     Among  romance  and  mis- 
cellaneous writers  may  be  named  Cooper,  Hawthorne,  Irving,  Channing,  and 
Legare  [le-gree].     Among  orators  may  be  named  Webster,  Clay,  Calhoun, 
Benton,  Everett,  Phillips,  Seward,  Prentice,  Stephens,  Douglas,  Choate.     In 
the  fine  arts,  also,  the  American  school  of  painters  and  sculptors  stands 
very  high. 

3.  The  great  civil  war,  though  terrible  in  its  effects,  has  not  been  without 


OUTLINE    OF   EXERCISES   IN    COMPOSITION-WRITING.       189 

some  good  results.  The  extinction  of  slavery  is  already  proving  a  benefit  to 
the  people  of  the  South,  while  it  has  taken  away  the  long-standing  subject  of 
political  dispute  between  the  two  great  sections  of  the  Union. 

4.  Another  benefit  of  the  war  is,  that  it  has  brought  the  two  sections, North 
and  South,  to  understand  each  other  better  and  respect  each  other  more  than 
they  ever  did  before.     The  war  has  also  made  Americans  less  puffed  up  and 
sensational  than  formerly,  and  has  given  a  more  earnest  and  manly  cast  to 
the  American  character. 

5.  The  study  of  United  States  history  should  infuse  into  our  minds  the 
American  spirit,  which  is  as  broad  as  the  continent.     It  should  inspire  us 
with  fraternal  feelings  towards  all  sections,  with  love  for  the  Union,  reverence 
for  the  Constitution,  and  faith  in  our  country's  destiny. — Swintoris  Condensed 
History  of  the  United  States. 

ILLUSTRATION. — Done  fairly. 

A  Century  of  Progress. 

The  century  has  witnessed  wonderful  intellectual  progress.  This  is  shown 
by  the  firm  basis  on  which  our  American  schools  are  founded,  which  school 
system,  together  with  the  Prussian,  is  the  broadest  and  best  in  the  world. 

Our  country  has,  at  present,  seven  millions  of  children  attending  schools, 
and  over  four  hundred  colleges  and  universities. 

During  colonial  times  our  fathers  received  their  intellectual  food  from  the 
mother  country ;  accordingly,  it  used  sneeringly  to  be  asked, '  Who  reads  an 
American  book  ?'  It  would  not  be  so  now,  for  American  authors  and  poets 
rank  as  high  as  any  in  the  world  at  the  present  time. 

Among  historians  may  be  named  Prescott,  Bancroft,  and  Motley.  Among 
poets  may  be  classed  LongfeHow,  Whittier,  Biyant,  Simms,  Holmes,  and  Poe. 

Among  romance  and  miscellaneous  writers  are  Hawthorne,  Irving,  Chan- 
ning,  and  Cooper.  The  leading  orators  are  Webster,  Clay,  Calhoun,  Seward, 
Prentice,  Phillips,  Everett,  Douglass,  Choate,  etc. 

In  the  fine  arts,  American  sculptors  and  painters  are  winning  for  themselves 
high  laurels  and  fame.. 

The  great  Civil  War,  though  terrible  in  its  destruction,  has  proved  bene- 
ficial to  the  country.  It  gave  the  African  his  liberty,  and  caused  the  North 
and  South  to  know  each  other  better  than  before.  It  also  removed  in  a  great 
respect  the  puffed  up  and  sensational  feeling  of  the  Americans. 

In  reading  the  history  of  the  United  States  it  should  infuse  into  our  minds 
the  American  spirit,  which  is  as  broad  as  the  continent.  It  should  cause  us 
to  feel  fraternally  to  all  sections  of  the  world,  to  love  the  Union,  have  rever- 
ence for  the  Constitution,  and  to  have  faith  in  our  country's  destiny. 

ILLUSTRATION. — Done  badly. 
This  exercise  is  printed  just  as  it  was  written.     Correct  it. 

A  Century  of  progress. 

This  century  has  noticed  great  intellectual  advantages  owing  principally  to 
the  common  school  system  which  with  Prussia  has  the  greatest  intellectual 
advantages  on  the  globe.  The  united  states  has  about  400  colleges  and  uni- 
versities and  has  about  7,000,000  of  children  attending  them.  In  the  Collo- 


190 


ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 


nial  times  the  colonies  had  to  depend  principally  on  the  mother  country  for 
intellectual  resources,  and  it  used  to  be  asked  with  scorn  who  reads  an  Amer- 
ican book  should  that  question  be  asked  now  it  would  be  answered  with  a 
great  deal  of  credit  to  the  United  States.  Within  the  last  60  years  many 
great  men  have  been  born  in  the  united  states,  among  historians  can  be  placed 
Prescott,  Branchet,  Mocker  among  the  writers  of  adventures  can  be  placed 
Webster,  Stevens,  and  many  others  among  poets.  Longfellow,  Cooper,  Cal- 
houn  Hathor.  The  civil  war  though  terrible  in  destruction  of  life,  done  a 
great  deal  of  good  for  the  united  states  it  made  a  better  feeling  among  the 
north  and  south  and  put  an  end  to  slavery  and  the  great  political  question  It 
also  took  the  puff  out  of  the  united  states  and  created  a  good  feeling  among 
the  people.  Let  us  therefore  always  have  a  good  deal  of  Love,  Faith  and  Rev- 
erence in  our  countries  welfare. 

Exercise  X. 

Write  in  your  own  Language  what  you  can  recollect  of  the  following  Tales 
and  Fables. 


Jack  and  the  Bean  Stalk. 

Little  Red  Riding  Hood. 

The  Babes  in  the  Wood. 

Ali  Baba. 

Beauty  and  the  Beast. 

Cinderella. 

John  Gilpin. 

Blue  Beard. 

Adventures  of  Sinbad  the  Sailor. 

Whittington  and  his  Cat. 

Fortunes ;  or  the  Wishing  Cap. 

Valentine  and  Orson. 

The  Bear  and  the  Bees. 

The  Fox  and  the  Crow. 

The  Wolf  and  the  Lamb. 


The  Ass  in  the  Lion's  Skin. 
The  Fox  and  the  Grapes. 
The  Frog  and  the  Ox. 
The  Frogs  who  wished  a  King. 
The  Fox  and  the  Stork. 
The  Wolf  and  the  Crane.   . 
The  Boy  who  cried  "Wolf." 
The  Oak  and  the  Willow. 
The  Dog  and  his  Shadow. 
The  Hare  and  the  Tortoise. 
The 'Stag  who  admired  his  Horns. 
The  Mouse  and  the  Lion. 
The  Ant  and  the  Caterpillar. 
The  Ant  and  the  Grasshopper. 
Crusoe's  Defense  of  his  Fort. 


6.  Letter-Writing. 

Every  one  that  can  write  at  all  ought  to  learn  how  to  write, 
fold,  and  direct  a  letter.  Exercises  in  letter-writing  may  be 
ranked  among  the  pleasantest  and  most  practical  forms  of 
composition  writing.  The  language  of  letters  should  be  plain 
and  simple.  The  construction  of  the  sentences  should  be 
easy  and  natural.  Stiffness,  formality,  and  the  affectation  of 
preciseness  are,  in  this  kind  of  composition,  particularly  ob- 
jectionable. In  fact,  we  should  write  to  our  friends  in  their 
absence  very  much  as  we  should  speak  to  them  if  they  were 
present.  The  mechanical  arrangement  of  a  letter  is  impor- 
tant, and  the  following  details  should  be  attended  to : 

I.  TJie  Date  and  the  Place  where  it  is  written. 
The  day,  month,  and  year  should  be  given  in  full.     Never  date  a  letter 

merely  by  the  day  of  the*  week  •,  as, '  Sunday  evening. ' 


LETTER-WRITING.  191 

II.  The  form  of  address;  as,  '  Sir,'  c  Dear  Sir,'  c  My  dear 

Charles,'  '  My  dearest  Father,'  according  to  the  terms 
of  intimacy  between  the  writer  and  the  person  ad- 
dressed. 

III.  The  Narrative^  or  letter  proper? 

IV.  The  Subscription ;  as, 'Yours  truly,'  c  Yours  faithfully,' 

'Your  affectionate  brother,'  etc.  (varying,  as  in  No. 

II.,  with  the  relations  of  the  parties),  and  the  Name 

of  the  writer. 
Y.  The  Name  of  the  Recipient. 

The  Teacher  must  explain  to  the  class  all  the  details  of  the  work.  A 
few  illustrations  are  selected  from  school  exercises,  and  are  printed  just  as 
they  were  written. 

I. 

[The  requirement  in  this  case  was,  'Address  a  short  letter 
to  John  Doe,  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  stating 
what  studies  you  like  best,  and  in  what  you  think  your- 
self deficient.'] 

00 

John  Doe  :  San  Francisco,  April,  19, 1872. 

Sir, 

As  you  requested  us  to  tell  you  about  our  studies,  I  will  give 
an  account  of  mine.  The  studies  which  are  liked,  the  ones  disliked,  the  one 
disliked  very  much,  for  there  is  one  of  that  class. 

Grammar  is  my  favorite.  In  the  beginning  of  the  year  I  disliked  it,  but 
now  it  occupies  the  first  place  among  all  the  studies.  I  like  History  and 
Geography  very  much  because  they  are  matters  of  memory,  and  I  was  crea- 
ted with  a  fair  memory. 

Arithmetic  I  am  very  sorry  to  say  is  the  study  I  dislike  so  very  much.  Mr. 
Doe,  I  am  not  a  creature  of  reason,  and  as  this  is  the  main  element  necessary 
in  Arithmetic,  I  am  deficient.  I  am  gaining  on  it  every  week,  I  hope  soon  to 
be  fine  in  Arithmetic. 

Composition  and  Penmanship  are  my  favorites  also.  Please  look  on  this 
paper  with  lenient  eye.  Do  not  be  too  criticlal.  I  do  not  think  this,  letter 
or  composition  is  very  bad — Agree  with  me. 

Yours  Truly,  Hattie  Cooper. 

(2.) 

Hon.  John  Doe,  San  Francisco,  April,  18, 1872. 

Superintendant  Common  Schools 
Sir 

I  take  the  pleasure  to  inform  you,  of  studdies  I  like 

and  dislike ;  my  special  favorite  is  Arithmetic,  next  comes  Grammar,  al- 
though more  difficult  yet  it  is  very  interesting  :  Phisical  Geography,  History 
and  Analysis,  together  form  the  van  of  my  studies.  I  do  not  pretend  to  say 
that  I  dislike  spelling  and  Natural  Geography,  because  they  are  generally  use- 
ful, but  they  do  not  rank  among  my  favorites. 

Very  Respectfully,  P.  D. 


192  ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

II. 

Illustrations  from  the  exercises  of  a  second-grade  class. 
There  are  many  faults  of  spelling,  capitalizing,  and  punctua- 
ting in  these  exercises.  See  if  you  can  correct  them. 

[The  requirement  was,  'Address  a  short  letter  of  thanks  to 
your  father,  mother,  or  guardian  for  an  imaginary  birth- 
day present.'] 

(10 

San  Francisco,  April,  19th,  1872. 
Dear  Father, 

I  thank  you  very  much  for  that  dress  you  made  me  a 

present  of  on  my  last  birth-day.  It  is  such  a  pretty  plaid,  I  guess  I  will 
have  mamma  to  make  me  an  overskirt  and  a  basque.  It  will  be  so  be- 
becoming.  And  I  must  not  forget  that  beautiful  velvet  hat  which  mamma 
also  gave  me.  Hoping  you  will  thank  her  for  it  I  still  remain. 

Your  loving  daughter,  Alice. 


San  Francisco,  April  19th,  1872. 
Dear  Parents. 

How  can  I  begin  to  thank  you,  for  that  beautiful  present  ? 
How  is  it  you  always  know  what  I  want?  That  book  case  is  just  beautiful. 
Dear  parents,  that  is  all  I  can  say  about  it,  and  I  will  try  i  o  show  you  by  my 
good  behavior,  how  much  I  thank  you  for  it,  Dear  parents  I  will  not  attempt 
to  tell  you  how  much  I  love  you,  for,  all  you  have  done  for  me,  but  let  my  ac- 
tions speak  for  me. 

Good  Bye  Your  daughter 

Annette. 

(3.) 

Boston,  April  19th,  1872.  . 
Dear  Mother  : 

I  cannot  express  the  thanks  I  owe  you  for  the  beautiful 
presents  you  sent  me.  The  pair  of  gold  bracelets  are  handsome,  and  I  thank 
you  a  thousand  times  for  them,  and  for  the  dress,  set,  ring,  and  especially 
your  picture.  I  showed  it  to  Mrs.  B  -  ,  and  she  said  "  it  was  the  best  pic- 
ture she  has  ever  seen  of  you.  " 

Your  ever  loving  daughter,  Augusta. 

(*•) 

Rose  Seminary. 

Apr.  19th;  1872. 
Dear  Father  ; 

How  can  I  express  my  thanks  to  you  in  words  for  my  beau- 
tiful, and  long  wished  for  little  watch,  I  can't  but  when  I  see  you  I  will  give 
you  a  big  kiss  for  it.  All  of  the  girls  pronounce  it  the  very  sweetest  one  in 
the  school  and  you  know  most  every  girl  has  one. 

The  lunch  bell  is  ringing  so  you  will  excuse  my  brevity  and 
believe  me 

Your  loving  daughter.  Lizzie. 


TURNING  POETKY  INTO  PROSE.  193 

7.  Turning  Poetry  into  Prose. 

The  style  of  poetry  is  more  impassioned,  and  more  figura- 
tive and  flowing,  than  that  of  prose.  Hence,  in  converting 
poetry  into  prose,  it  is  often  necessary  to  substitute  simpler 
words  and  expressions,  as  well  as  to  break  up  the  rhyme  and 
metre.  The  following  are  some  of  the  chief  peculiarities  of 
poetical  construction : 

I.  The  auxiliary  verb  to  do  is  dispensed  with  in  interrogation — 
Know  ye  the  land^here  the  cypress  and  myrtle  ? — Byron. 
Ho !  come  ye  in  peace  here,  or  come  ye  in  war  ? — Scott. 

IT.  The  verb  precedes  the  nominative — 

While  stands  the  Coliseum,  Rome  shall  stand. — Byron. 

Answered  Fitz- James :  'And  if  I  thought.' — Scott. 

O'er  the  path  so  well  known  still  proceeded  the  maid. — Southey. 

III.  The  objective  case  precedes  the  transitive  verb — 

Lands  he  could  measure,  terms  and  tides  presage. — Goldsmith. 
The  Stuart  sceptre  well  she  swayed,l)ut  the  sword  she  could  not  wield. 
—H.G.Bell. 

IV.  The  noun  precedes  the  adjective — 

Hadst  thou  sent  warning,  fair  and  true. — Scott. 
Now  is  the  pleasant  time,  the  cool,  the  silent. — Milton. 

V.  The  adjective  precedes  the  verb  to  be — 

Few  and  short  were  the  prayers  we  said. — Wolfe. 
Rich  were  the  sable  robes  she  wore. — H.G.Bell. 

VI.  The  pronoun  is  expressed  in  the  imperative — 
Wipe  thou  thine  eyes. — Shakspeare. 

But,  blench  not  thou. — Byron. 

VII.  Adjectives  are  used  for  adverbs — 

False  flew  the  shaft,  though  pointed  well. — Moore. 
Abrupt  and  loud,  a  summons  shook  the  gate. — Campbell. 

VIII.  Personal  pronouns  are  used  with  their  antecedents — 
The  wind,  it  waved  the  willow  boughs. — Southey. 

For  the  deck  it  was  their  field  of  fame. — Campbell. 

IX.  The  antecedent  is  omitted — 

Who  steals  my  purse,  steals  trash. — Shakspeare. 
Happy,  who  walks  with  him. — Cowper. 

X.  And — and  is  used  for  both — and.      Or — or  for  either — or.     Nor — nor 
for  neither — nor — 

And  trump  and  timbrel  answered  keen. — Scott. 
-  I  whom  nor  avarice  nor  pleasures  move. — Walsh. 

XI.  Adverbial  phrases  are  not  placed  in  juxtaposition  with  .the  words  to 
which  they  grammatically  belong — 

On  thy  voiceless  shore 
The  heroic  lay  is  tuneless  now. — Byron. 
Of  the  three  hundred  grant  but  three. — Byron. 


194  ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

XII.  Prepositions  are  suppressed — 

Despair  and  anguish  fled  [  ]  the  struggling  soul. — Goldsmith. 

And  like  the  bird  whose  pinions  quake 

But  can  not  fly  [  ]  the  gazing  snake. — Byron. 

In  poetry,  things  are  painted  vividly;  words  are  sometimes 
used  that  would  elsewhere  not  be  allowable  ;  phrases  and 
clauses  are  inverted ;  and  the  sentences  are  elliptical. 

All  these  things  must  be  considered  in  transposing  verse 
into  prose. 

ILLUSTRATION.          „ 
*  In  woods  and  glens  I  love  to  roam 
When  the  tired  hedger  hies  him  home, 
Or  by  the  woodland  pool  to  rest 
When  pale  the  star  sleeps  on  its  breast.' 

Henry  Kirke  White. 

This  may  be  turned  into  prose  so  as.to  read  as  follows : 
I  love  to  roam  among  the  woods  and  glens  when  the  hedger,  tired  with 

his  day's  work,  is  going  home,  or  to  sit  by  the  woodland  pool  when  the  star 

is  reflected  from  its  waters. 

SECOND    ILLUSTRATION. 

'  Sweet  Auburn !  loveliest  village  of  the  plain, 
Where  health  and  plenty  cheer'd  the  laboring  swain, 
How  often  have  I  paused  on  every  charm, 
The  shelter'd  cot,  the  cultivated  fa*rm, 
The  never-failing  brook,  the  busy  mill, 
The  decent  church,  that  topp'd  the  neighboring  hill ; 
The  hawthorn  bush,  with  seats  beneath  the  shade, 
For  talking  age  and  whispering  lovers  made. ' —  Goldsmith. 

This  may  be  turned  into  prose  thus  : 

Auburn,  the  loveliest  village  of  the  plain,  whose  laborers  were  paid  for  their 
work  with  health  and  plenty.  How  often  have  I  paused  to  see  thy  various 
charms — the  cottages  sheltered  from  the  sun  and  wind  by  trees,  the  farm 
rich  in  cultivation,  the  brook  always  running,  and  the  mill  always  going,  the 
pretty  church  on  the  top  of  the  neighboring  hill,  and  the  hawthorn,  with 
seats  round  it,  on  which  the  old  could  gossip,  and  lovers  could  whisper. 

Exercise  XL 

A. 

Convert  the  following  Stanzas  into  Prose: 
THE  VILLAGE  BLACKSMITH.—  Longfellow., 

1.  Under  a  spreading  chestnut-tree 

The  village  smithy  stands  ; 
The  smith,  a  mighty  man  is  he, 

With  large  and  sinewy  hands  ; 
And  the  muscles  of  his  brawny  arms 

Are  strong  as  iron  bands. 


TURNING  POETRY  INTO  PROSE.  195 

2.  His  hair  is  crisp,  and  black,  and  long, 

His  face  is  like  the  tan  ; 
His  brow  is  wet  with  honest  sweat ; 

He  earns  whate'er  he  can, 
And  looks  the  whole  world  in  the  face, 

For  he  owes  not  any  man. 

3.  Week  in,  week  out,  from  morn  till  night, 

You  can  hear  his  bellows  blow ; 
You  can  hear  him  swing  his  heavy  sledge 

With  measured  beat  and  slow, 
Like  a  sexton  ringing  the  village  bell 

When  the  evening  sun  is  low. 

4.  And  children  coming  home  from  school 

Look  in  at  the  open  door ; 
They  love  to  see  the  flaming  forge, 

And  hear  the  bellows  roar, 
And  catch  the  burning  sparks  that  fly 

Like  chaff  from  a  threshing-floor. 

5.  Thanks,  thanks  to  thee,  my  worthy  friend, 

For,  the  lesson  thou  hast  taught ! 
Thus  at  the  flaming  forge  of  life 

Our  fortunes  must  be  wrought ; 
Thus  on  its  sounding  anvil  shaped 

Each  burning  deed  and  thought* ! 

ILLUSTRATION. 

The  following  is  an  exercise  just  as  it  was  written  by  a 
scholar  (aged  15)  in  one  of  the  first-grade  classes  of  a  gram- 
mar-school in  San  Francisco.  You  will  see  that  it  is  quite 
well  done.  Can  you  make  any  criticism  on  it  ? 

The  Village  Blacksmith. 

The  blacksmith  shop  stands  in  the  village,  under  a  spreading  chestnut-tree. 
The  smith  is  a  mighty  man.  His  hands  are  large  and  sinewy ;  and  the  mus- 
cles of  his  arm  are  so  strong,  that  they  look  like  bands  of  iron. 

You  can  hear  his  bellows  blow  from  morning  until  night,  week  in,  and 
week  out.  He  swings  his  heavy  sledge  so  slowly  and  regularly,  that  it  resem- 
bles the  ringing  of  the  village  bell,  which  tolls  when  the  sun  sets. 

When  the  children  are  coming  home  from  school,  they  stop  to  look  in,  for 
the  door  is  always  open.  They  like  to  see  the  flaming  forge,  and  hear  the 
bellows  roar.  They  are  delighted  to  catch  the  sparks,  which  fly  about  so 
thick  and  fast  that  they  think  of  chaff  on  a  threshing-floor. 

You  have  taught  me  a  valuable  lesson  my  worthy  friend,  for  which  I  must 
earnestly  thank  you.  As  we  go  through  life,  our  fortunes  must  be  wrought 
by  honest,  steady  labor,  as  at  the  flaming  forge.  Every  deed  and  thought  is 
recorded,  and  leaves  an  endless  impression,  as  the  anvil  does  in  striking. 

SECOND    ILLUSTRATION. 

Here  is  another  exercise  written  by  a  pupil  of  the  same 
grade  and  age.  It  is  very  badly  done.  Correct  it. 


196  ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

The  Village  blacksmith. 

1.  Under  a  spreading  chestnut-tree  the  smith,  a  mighty  man  is  he  and  the 
muscles  of  his  brawny  arms  are  strong  as  iron  bands  with  large  and  sinewy 
hands  the  village  smithy  stands. 

3  Week  in  week  out  from  morn  till  night  you  can  hear  him  swing  his  heavy 
sledge  like  a  sexton  ringing  the  village  bell  when  the  evening  sun  is  low  you 
can  hear  his  bellows  blow  with  measured  beat  and  slow. 

4  And  children  coming  home  from  school  look  in  at  the  open  door  and 
catch  the  burning  sparks  that  fly  like  chaff  from  a  threshing  floor,  they  love 
to  see  the  flaming  forge  and  hear  the  bellows  roar. 

8  Thanks,  thanks  to  thee,  my  worthy  friend  thus  at  the  flaming  forge  of 
life  thus  on  its  sounding  anvil  shaped  each  burning  deed  and  thought  for  the 
lessons  thou  hast  taught  our  fortunes  must  be  wrought. 

Exercise  XII. 

The  Grandfather. 

1.  The  farmer  sat  in  his  easy-chair, 

Smoking  his  pipe  of  clay, 
While  his  hale  old  wife,  with  busy  care, 

Was  clearing  the  dinner  away ; 
A  sweet  little  girl,  with  fine  blue  eyes, 
On  her  grandfather's  knee,  was  catching  flies. 

2.  The  old  man  laid  his  hand  on  her  head, 

With  a  tear  on  his  wrinkled  face ; 
He  thought  how  often  her  mother  dead 

Had  sat  in  the  self-same  place ; 
As  the  tear  stole  down  from  his  half-shut  eye, 
4  Don't  smoke !'  said  the  child ;  '  how  it  makes  you  cry !' 

3.  Still  the  farmer  sat  in  his  easy-chair, 

While  close  to  his  heaving  breast 
The  moistened  brow  and  the  cheek  so  fair 

Of  his  sweet  grandchild  were  pressed ; 
His  head,  bent  down,  on  her  soft  hair  lay ; 
Fast  asleep  were  they  both  on  that  summer  day. 

Sample  of  the  exercise  done  pretty  well : 

The  Grand-father. 

1. 

The  farmer  was  smoking  his  clay  pipe,  as  he  sat  in  his  easy-chair,  and  his 
hale  old  wife  was  clearing  away  the  dinner  with  busy  care ;  while  on  her 
grand-father's  knee,  was  a  sweet  little  girl  catching  flies. 

2. 

And  as  he  thought  how  her  dead  mother,  used  to  sit  in  that  same  place  he 
placed  his  hand  on  her  head  with  a  tear  on  his  wrinkled  face ;  and  as  the 
child,  saw  the  tear  from  his  eye  steal  down,  she  said  4  don't  smoke,'  'how  it 
makes  you  cry. ' 

3. 
Still  the  farmer  sat  in  his  easy-chair,  and  they  were  both  fast  asleep,  with 


TUKNING  POETRY  INTO  PKOSE.  197 

his  head  bent  down  on  her  soft  hair,  while  the  moistened  brow,  and  the  fair 
cheek  of  his  grandchild  was  pressed  against  his  heaving  breast. 

Sample  as  done  pretty  badly : 

The  Grandfather. 

A  Farmer  sat  smoking  his  pipe  of  clay  in  his  easy-chair,  while  with  busy 
care  his  hale  old  wife  the  dinner  was  clearing  away,  while  on  her  Grandfather's 
knee  a  little  girl  with  fine  blue  eyes,  was  catching  flies. 

On  her  head  the  old  man  laid  his  hand  while  on  his  wrinkled  face  a  tear, 
how  often  her  mother  he  thought  had  in  the  self-same  spot  had  sat,  and  from 
his  half  shut  eye  a  tear  stole  down  '  don't  smoke  for  it  makes  you  cry'  said 
the  child. 

Still  in  his  easy-chair  the  farmer  sat  while  the  moistened  brow  and  the 
cheek  of  his  grandchild  so  fair  was  pressed  close  to  his  heaving  breast  on  her 
soft  hair  lay  his  head  bent  down  '  for  on  that  summer  day  they  were  both  fast 
asleep.' 

Exercise  XIII. 
Turn  the  following  Stanzas  into  Prose: 

1.  Lo,  the  poor  Indian !  whose  untutored  mind 
Sees  God  in  clouds,  or  hears  him  in  the  wind  ; 
His  soul  proud  science  never  taught  to  stray 
Far  as  the  solar  walk  or  Milky  Way ; 

Yet  simple  Nature  to  his  hope  has  given, 

Beyond  the  cloud-topp'd  hills,  a  humble  heaven ; 

Some  safer  world  in  depth  of  woods  embraced, 

Some  happier  island  in  the  watery  waste, 

Where  slaves  once  more  their  native  land  behold, 

No  fiends  torment,  no  Christians  thirst  for  gold ! 

To  Be,  contents  his  natural  desire  ; 

He  asks  no  angel's  wing,  no  seraph's  fire ; 

But  thinks,  admitted  to  that  equal  sky, 

His  faithful  dog  shall  bear  him  company. — Pope. 

2.  The  busy  lark,  the  messenger  of  day, 
Saluteth  in  her  song  the  morning  gray, 
And  fiery  Phoebus  riseth  up  so  bright, 
That  all  the  Orient  laugheth  at  the  sight, 

And  with  his  streams  he  drieth  in  the  greves  (graves) 
The  silver  drops  that  hang  upon  the  leaves. — Chaucer. 

3.  Sometimes,  with  secure  delight, 
The  upland  hamlets  will  invite, 
When  the  merry  bells  ring  round, 
And  the  jocund  rebecs  sound, 

To  many  a  youth  and  many  a  maid,  t 

Dancing  in  the  checkered  shade, 

When  young  and  old  come  forth  to  play, 

On  a  sunshine  holiday, 

Till  the  livelong  daylight  fail. — Shalcspeare. 

4.  The  armaments,  which  thunderstrike  the  walls 

Of  rock-built  cities,  bidding  nations  quake, 


198  ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

And  monarchs  tremble  in  their  capitals — 

The  oak  leviathans,  whose  huge  ribs  make 

Their  clay  creator  the  vain  title  take 
Of  lord  of  thee,  and  arbiter  of  war — 

These  are  thy  toys ;  and,  as  the  snowy  flake, 
They  melt  into  thy  yeast  of  waves,  which  mar 
Alike  the  Armada's  pride,  or  spoils  of  Trafalgar. — Byron. 

5.  One  touch  to  her  hand,  and  one  word  in  her  ear, 

When  they  reached  the  hall  door,  and  the  charger  stood  near ; 

So  light  to  the  croupe  the  fair  lady  he  swung — 

So  light  to  the  saddle  before  her  he  sprung ! 

4  She  is  won !  we  are  gone,  over  bank,  bush,  and  scaur ; 

They'll  have  fleet  steeds  that  follow, '  quoth  young  Lochinvar. — Scott. 

6.  At  church,  with  meek  and  unaffected  grace, 
His  looks  adorned  the  venerable  place ; 

Truth  from  his  lips  prevailed  with  double  sway, 

And  fools,  who  came  to  scoff,  remained  to  pray. 

The  service  passed,  around  the  pious  man 

With  ready  zeal  each  honest  rustic  ran  ; 

Even  children  followed,  with  endearing  wile, 

And  plucked  his  gown  to  share  the  good  man's  smile ; 

His  ready  smile  a  parent's  warmth  expressed, 

Their  welfare  pleased  him,  and  their  cares  distressed. 

To  them  his  heart,  his  love,  his  griefs  were  given, 

But  all  his  serious  thoughts  had  rest  in  heaven ; 

As  some  tall  cliff,  that  lifts  its  awful  form, 

Swells  from  the  vale,  and  midway  leaves  the  storm, 

Though  round  its  breast  the  rolling  clouds  are  spread, 

Eternal  sunshine  settles  on  its  head. — Goldsmith. 

NOTE. — For  additional  exercises,  Teachers  are  referred  to  any  of  the 
School  Readers. 


APPENDI 


CONJUGATION  OF  A  REGULAR  YEKB. 
(ANCIENT  STYLE.) 

Present  Tense.  Past  Tense.  Past  Participle. 

Love.  Loved.  Loved. 


INDICATIVE   MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 
Active. 

I  love.  We   ">  I  am  loved. 

Thou  lovest.  Ye     >  love.  Thou  art  loved. 

He  loveth.  They)  He  is  loved. 


Passive. 
We    > 

Ye     >  are  loved. 
They) 


I  loved. 
Thou  lovedst. 
He  loved. 


We   ) 

Ye     Y  loved. 
They) 


Past  Tense. 

I  was  loved. 
Thou  wast  loved. 
He  was  loved. 


We   ) 

Ye     >  were  loved. 

They) 


I  shall  or  will  love. 
Thou  shalt  or  wilt 

love. 
He  shall  or  will  love. 


We       shall 
Ye      >  or  will 
They    love. 


Future  Tense. 

Thou  shalt  or  } 

wilt  I  be 

I  shall  o?'  will   (  loved. 
He  shall  or  will ) 


We 
Ye 

They 


shall 
or  will 
>be 
loved. 


I  have       ) 
Thou  hast  >  loved. 
He  has      ) 


I  had          ) 
Thou  hadst  /-  loved. 
]He  had       ) 


I  shall  or 

will 
Thou  shalt  I 

or  wilt 
]He  shall  or 

will 


have 
loved. 


Present  Perfect  Tense. 


We  ' 
Ye 

They. 


have 
loved. 


I  have 
Thou  hast 
He  hath 


been 


Past  Perfect  Tense. 


^Ve   Had 

The>-d' 

ThouhadstLbeen, 
He  had       )loved' 

Future  Perfect  Tense. 

I  shall   or 

We   )  shall 
Ye     >  have 
They)  loved. 

wilt 
Thou  shalt 
or  wilt 
He  shall  or 

have 
been 
loved. 

will 

We  "I  have 
Ye  >  been 
They)  loved. 


We  )  had 
Ye  >•  been 
They)  loved. 


We 
Ye 

They 


shall 
or  will 
have 
been 
loved. 


200 


APPENDIX. 


Active. 

SINGULAR. 

I  may,  can,  or  must 


Thou  mayest,  canst,  or  must  >•  love. 
He  may,  can,  or  must  ) 

PLURAL. 

We   ) 

Ye     V-i 
They) 


SINGULAR. 

I  might,  could,  would,  or 

should 
Thou  mightest,  couldst, 

wouldst,  or  shouldst 
He  might,  could,  would,  or 

should 


POTENTIAL   MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

Passive. 

SINGULAR. 

I  may,  can,  or  must 


Thou  mayest,  canst,  or  must  >  be  loved. 
He  may,  can,  or  must         ) 

PLURAL. 

We  ) 

Ye     >  may,  can,  or  must  be  loved. 
They) 


be  loved. 


Past  Tense. 

SINGULAR. 

I  might,  could,  would,  or 

should 

love. 

Thou  mightest,  couldst, 
wouldst,  or  shouldst 

He  might,  could,  would, 

or  should 

fJUUKiAij.  ri*\jxk&.ii. 

v  e    f_  might,  could,  would,  or  should  Voe    (  might,  could,  would,  or  should 
* e      r       i~,,~  ie      f       1,^1^,^/1 


They) 


love. 


They) 
Present  Perfect  Tense. 


be  loved. 


SINGULAR. 

I  may,  can,  or  must 


have 


Thou  mayest,  canst,  or  must  >-  jove(i 
He  may,  can,  or  must  ) 

PLURAL. 

We   ) 

Ye     >  may,  can,  or  must  have  loved. 


SINGULAR. 

I  may,  can,  or  must 


")  have 


Thou  mayest,  canst,  or  must  >  been 
He  may,  can,  or  must  )  loved. 


They) 


We  "}  may, 
Ye  >-  can, 
They)  must 

Past  Perfect  Tense. 


>  have  been  loved. 


SINGULAR. 

I  might,  could,  would,  or 

should 
Thou  mightest,  couldst, 

wouldst,  or  shouldst 
He  might,  could,  would,  or 

should 


have 
loved. 


We 
Ye 


could, 
should 


>  have  loved. 


I  might,  could,  would,  or 

should 
Thou  mightest,  couldst, 
wouldst,  or  shouldst 
He  might,  could,  would,  or 

have 
been 
loved. 

should 

PLURAL. 

We    )  mig^'      ) 

Ye      >  cou  i  7       >  have  been  loved. 

TheH  should      ) 

APPENDIX. 


201 


Active. 

If  I  or  we       } 
If  thou  or  ye   >  love. 
If  he  or  they  ) 


If  I  or  we        } 

If  thou  or  ye    >  loved. 

If  we  or  they  ) 

Active. 
Love  (thou  or  ye). 


SUBJUNCTIVE   MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

If  I  or  we 
If  thou  or  ye 
If  we  or  they 

Past  Tense. 

|  If  I  or  we 
If  thou  or  ye 
If  we  or  they 


Passive. 


be  loved. 


were  loved. 


INFINITIVE   MOOD. 

Passive. 

|         Be  (thou  or  ye)  loved. 


INFINITIVES. 

Present.  To  love.  To  be  loved. 

Perfect.  To  have  loved.  To  have  been  loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present.  Loving.        Being  loved.  Past.  Loved.        Been  loved. 

Perfect.  Having  loved.         Having  been  loved. 

SYNOPSIS  OP  THE  YEEB  LOVE. 

(ANCIENT  STYLE.) 
INDICATIVE     MOOD. 


ACTIVE  VOICE. 

PASSIVE  VOICE. 

Tense. 

Simple  Form. 

Progressive  Form. 

Present. 
Past. 
Future. 
Pres.  Perf. 

Past  Perf. 
Fut.  Perf. 

Thou  lovest. 
Thou  lovedst. 
Thou  wilt  love. 
Thou  hast  loved. 

Thou  hadst  loved. 
Thou  wilt  have  loved. 

Thou  art  loving. 
Thou  wast  loving. 
Thou  wilt  be  loving. 
Thou  hast  been  lov- 
ing. 
Thou  hadst  been  lov- 
ing. 
Thou  wilt  have  been 
loving. 

Thou  art  loved. 
Thou  wast  loved. 
Thou  wilt  be  loved. 
Thou   hast  been 
loved. 
Thou  hadst  been 
loved. 
Thou  wilt  have  been 
loved. 

POTENTIAL   MOOD. 

Present.. 
Past. 

Pres.  Perf. 
Past  Perf. 

Thou 
mayest  or  canst  love, 
mightest   or  couldst 
love, 
mayest  or  canst  have 
loved, 
mightest  or  couldst 
have  loved. 

Thou 
mayest  be  loving, 
mightest  be  loving. 

mayest  have  been 
loving, 
mightest  have  been 
loving. 

Thou 
mayest  be  loved, 
mightest  be  loved. 

mayest  have  been 
loved, 
mightest  have  been 
loved. 

I  2 


202 


APPENDIX. 


SUBJUNCTIVE    MOOD. 


Present. 
Past. 

If  thou  love. 
If  thou  loved. 

If  thou  be  loving. 
If  thou  were  loving. 

If  thou  be  loved. 
If  thou  were  loved. 

IMPERATIVE   MOOD. 

Present.      \  Love  (thou).               |  Be  (thou)  loving. 

INFINITIVE   MOOD. 

Present. 
Perfect. 

To  love. 
To  have  loved. 

To  l^e  loving. 
To  have  been  loving. 

To  be  loved. 
To  have  been  loved. 

SYNOPSIS  OF  A  VERB  CONJUGATED 

1.  NEGATIVELY  ;  2.  INTEEKOGATIVELY  ;  3.  NEGATIVE-INTEEEOGATIVELY. 


INDICATIVE   MOOD. 


1. 

2. 

3. 

Present.                I  do  not  move. 

Do  I  move  ? 

Do  I  not  move  ?* 

Present  progres.  I  am  not  moving. 

Am  I  moving  ? 

Am  I  not  moving  ? 

Past  emphatic.    I  did  not  move. 

Did  I  move  ? 

Did  I  not  move  ? 

Past  progress       I  was  not  moving. 

Was  I  moving  ? 

Was  I  not  moving  ? 

Perfect.                I  have  not  moved. 

Have  I  moved  ? 

Have  I  not  moved  ? 

Perfect  progres.   I  have   not  been 

Have  I  been  mov- 

Have   I    not   been 

moving. 

ing? 

moving  ? 

Past  perfect.        I  had  not  moved. 

Had  I  moved  ? 

Had  I  not  moved  ? 

Past  perf.  prog.   I  .  had    not   been 

Had  I  been  mov- 

Had I  not  been  mov- 

moving. 

ing? 

ing? 

Future.                 I  shall  not  move. 

Shall  I  move? 

Shall  I  not  move  ? 

Future  progres.    I    shall    not    be 

Shall   I    be    mov- 

Shall I  not  be  mov- 

moving. 

ing? 

ing? 

Future  perfect.    I  shall  not  have 

Shall   I    have 

Shall    I    not    have 

moved. 

moved  ? 

moved  ? 

Fut.  perf.  prog.   I  shall  not  have 

Shall  I  have  been 

Shall    I    not    have 

been  moving. 

moving  ? 

been  moving? 

POTENTIAL   MOOD. 

1. 

2. 

3. 

Present.        I  may,     ^ 

May,    ) 

May,     ) 

can,      >  not  move. 

Can,      >•  I  move  ? 

Can,      >  I  not  move? 

must    ) 

Must    ) 

Must    ) 

Past.             I  might,  j 

Might,  I 

Might,  j 

should  ) 

Should  ) 

Should'  ) 

*  There  is  another  mode  of  placing  the  negative  ;  thus  : 

'Do  not  I  move?'  con- 

tracted  into 

ists :  If  the 

not  I  move  ?' 

or  emphatic :  '  Do  I  not  move 


APPENDIX. 


203 


Pres.Perf.  I  may, 


not  have 

not  have 
moved. 

^           )  I  have 
Can       j  moved? 

Might,  ) 
Could,   1  I  have 
Would,  i  moved  ? 
Should  J 

May,     )  I  not  have 

Can,      )  moved. 

Might,  ^ 
Could,    1  I  not  have 
Would,  [moved? 
Should  J 

Past  Perf.  I  might, 
could, 
would, 
should 


ANGLO-SAXON  PARADIGMS. 

[The  Inflections  and  Words  retained  in  Modern  English  are  printed  in  Italics.] 
1.  THE  NOUN 


SING. 

PLUR. 

SING. 

PLUR. 

Nom. 

fisc, 

fisc-as.(2) 

Nom. 

fot, 

fet.(3) 

Gen. 

es,^) 

a. 

Gen. 

—  es, 

fot-a. 

D.Ab. 

e, 

um. 

D.Ab. 

fet, 

—  um. 

Ace. 

? 

as.(2) 

Ace. 

/^•(3) 

0-68=  -'8. 

(2)  _as=  -es,  -s. 

(3)  fet 

rzfeet. 

SING. 

PLUR. 

SING. 

PLUR. 

Nom. 

ox-a, 

OX-GW.  (4) 

Nom. 

aeg, 

aeg-rw.  (5) 

Gen. 

—  an, 

—  ena. 

Gen. 

es, 

ra. 

D.  Ab. 

—an, 

—  um. 

D.Ab. 

e, 

rum. 

Ace. 

—an, 

—  arc.(4) 

Ace. 

ru.  (5) 

(*)  -an  =  -en. 


(5)  -ru  =.  -ry  in  eyry,  rookery,  etc. 


Other  plural- endings  :  -a,  -e,  -w,  all  of  which  are  lost. 


SING. 

Nom.  Ic     =  I, 
Gen.    mm  =  mine, 
Dat.    me    =  me, 

Ace.     me     =  me, 


2.  THE  PRONOUN. 

First  Personal  Pronoun. 

DUAL.  PLUR. 

wit,  we     —  we. 

uncer,       ure    =  our. 

unc,  us      =  us. 

unc.  us      =  us. 


Second 'Personal  Pronoun. 


SING. 

Nom.  thu    =  thou, 

DUAL. 

git      , 

PLUR. 

ge        =  ye. 

Dat.   the    =  thee, 
Ace.    the    =  thee, 

inc      , 
inc      , 

edw      =  you. 
edw     —  you. 

Demonstrative  Pronoun  (3d  Person). 


MASO. 

Nom.  he        =  he, 

Singular. 

FEM. 

heo             , 

NEUT. 

hit    —  it. 
his         (its). 
him       . 
hit    =  it. 

Plural. 

M.  F.  N. 
hi       

Dat.     him  )         ,  . 
A         T_*     r  f  nim, 
Ace.    hme)  r 

hire(l)  =  here, 
hig     '        , 

him  . 
hig     —  . 

0)  hire  =  here,  adv.,  in  this  place. 


204 


APPENDIX. 


MASO. 

Nom.  se    —  the, 

6^72.    thaes  

I) at.    tham   

Ace.    thone  , 

All.    thy      ,  thaere 


Definite  Article. 
Singular. 

FEM.  NETJT. 

seo            =  she,  thaet  =  that. 

thaere  ,  thaes        . 

tha6re(?)  =  there,  tham        . 

tha  ,  thaet        . 

,  %(3)  ==  the. 


Plural. 
M.  F.  N. 

tha  =  they. 
tkdra  =  their. 
tham  ) 

tha  V  =  them, 
tham) 


(2)  thaere^^ere,  adv.,  to  that  place. 

(3)  thy     =the,  adv.,  in  "  the  more,  the  better." 


Demonstrative  Adjective. 
Singular. 


MASO.  FEM.  NEUT. 

Nom.  thes  =  this,     theds  ,  this  =  this. 

Gen.  thises    ,  thisse ,  thises    . 

Dat.  thisum ,  thisse ,'  thisum . 

Ace.  thisne   - — ,  thas    •• — — ,  this  —  this. 


Plural 
M.  F.  N. 
thds  —  these,  those. 

thissa    • . 

thisum  . 

thas  —  these,  those. 


Interrogative  and  Relative  Pronoun. 
Singular. 


MASO.,  FEM. 


Plural 
M.  and  N. 
hwa. 
hwaes. 
hwam. 
hwone. 
hwy. 

Hwylc  =  which,  is  declined  as  an  indefinite  adjective. 


Nom.  hwa 

=  who, 

hwaet  =  what. 

Gen.    hwaes 

=  whose, 

hwaes  —  whose. 

Dat.    hwam    } 

(hwdin  =  . 

Ace.    hvvone  j 

-  =  whom, 

(hwaet  =  what. 

Abl    hwi 

> 

hwi      =  why. 

MASO. 

Nom.  god, 

Gen. es, 

Dat. urn, 

Ace. ne, 

Abl e, 


MASO. 

Nom.  (se)  god-a, 

Gen.  an, 

Dat.  an, 

Ace.  an, 

Abl 


3.  THE  ADJECTIVE. 
(1.)  Indefinite  (Strong). 
Singular. 

FEM.  NEUT. 

god,  god. 

re,  es. 

re,  um. 

e,  . 
re,  e. 

(2.)  Definite  (Weak). 
Singular. 

FEM.  NEUT. 

(seo)  gdd-e,  (thaet)  god-e. 

an,  an. 

an,  an. 

an,  e. 

an,  an. 

All  these  endings  are  lost. 


Plural 
M.  F.  N. 

god-e  (-u). 

- —  ra. 

um. 

—  e  (-u). 

um. 


Plural 

M.       F.    N. 

(tha)  gdd-an. 

ena. 

um. 

an. 

um. 


APPENDIX. 


205 


Pos. 
smael  =  small, 
(se)  smaela 

Comparison. 
Comp. 

M.      F. 

smael-ra,  -re  —  smaller, 
(se)  smael  ra. 

laet^late. 
(se)  laeta. 

laet-ra,  -re,  —  later, 
(se)  laet-ra. 

Super. 
(se)  =— st. 

laet-ost= latest, 
(se)  laet-mesta^latemost. 


SAXON  VEKB. 


WESAN,  To  BE. 


INDICATIVE   MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

SING.  PLUB. 

1.  eom  —  am  } 

2.  eart  =  art  ^  synd  (-on) . 

3.  ys      =  is    ) 

Past  Tense. 

1.  waes    =  was 

2.  waere  =  [wast]  J>-  waeron  =  were. 

3.  waes    =  was 


SUBJUNCTIVE   MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

SING.  PLUR. 

sy  [seo,  sig], -<syn . 

Past  Tense. 


2.  >  waere  =  were  •<  waeron  =•  were. 
3.)  ( 


BEON,  To  BE. 


INDICATIVE    MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

SING.  PLUR. 

l.beo,     } 

2.  byst,   >•  beo  [-th],    — 

3.  byth,  ) 


I  bed  = 


IMPERATIVE   MOOD. 

bed  [-th]  =  be. 


SUBJUNCTIVE   MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

8LNG.  PLUR. 


2.  >  beo  —  be 
3.) 


•  bedn  =  be. 


INFINITIVE   MOOD. 

Indef.      beon  =  be. 

Gerund,  to  beonne  —  [for]  being. 


PARTICIPLE. 

Imperf.  beonde  =  being. 


206 


APPENDIX. 


COMPARATIVE  TABLE  OF  TENSES  IN  ENGLISH,  LATIN, 
FRENCH,  AND  GERMAN. 


ACTIVE  VOICE. 

INDICATIVE   MOOD. 


English. 

Latin. 

French. 

German. 

•§  Clndef. 
%  J  Progr. 

He  writes. 
He  is  writing. 

Scribit. 
Scribit. 

11  ecrit. 
11  ecrit. 

Er  schreibt 
Er  schreibt. 

1  1  Pers- 

He  has  written. 

Scripsit. 

11  a  ecrit. 

Er   hat   geschrie- 

fi,  [ 

ben. 

Clndef. 

He  wrote. 

Scripsit. 

11  ecrivit. 

Er  schrieb. 

«  \  Progr. 

He  was  writing. 

Scribebat. 

11  6crivait. 

Er  schrieb. 

§  \Perf. 

He  had  written. 

Scripserat. 

?I1  avait  ecrit.      \ 
(11  eut  ecrit.         ) 

Er  hatte  geschrie- 
ben. 

(Indef. 

He  will  write. 

Scribet. 

11  ecrira. 

Er  wird  schreiben. 

g  \  Progr. 

He  will  be  writ- 

Scribet. 

11  ecrira. 

Er  wird  schreiben. 

•§  \ 

ing. 

|     Per/. 

He  will  hare 

Scripserit. 

11  aura  6crit. 

Er  wird  geschrie- 

^  I 

written. 

ben  haben. 

PASSIVE  VOICE. 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

«  r  Indef. 

s  \ 

It  is  written. 

Scribitur. 

11  est  ecrit. 

Es  wird  geschrie- 
ben. 

8  <  Pro0r. 

It  is  being  writ- 

Scribitur. 



Es  wird  geschrie- 

4 

ten. 

ben. 

?  (Perf. 

It  has  been  writ- 
ten. 

(Scriptum  est.  \ 
(Scriptumfuit.t 

11  a  et6  6crit. 

Es  ist  geschrieben 
worden. 

„  (indef. 

It  was  written. 

(Scriptum  est.  \ 
(Scriptum  f  ait.  j 

11  fut  ecrit. 

Es  wurde  geschrie- 
ben. 

|  J  Progr. 

It   was   being 

Scribebatur. 

_ 

Es  wnrde  geschrie- 

** } 

written. 

ben. 

(.Perf. 

It    had   been 
written. 

{Scriptum  erat.) 
Scriptum  fue-> 
rat.                j 

J  11  avait  6te  ecrit.  I 
111  eut  ete  ecrit.   j 

Es   war    geschrie- 
ben worden. 

(Indef. 

It  will  be  writ- 

Scribetur. 

11  sera  ecrit. 

Es  wird  geschrie- 

» \ 

ten. 

ben  werden. 

|  J  Pro^r. 

It  will  be  being 

Scribetur. 

— 

Es  wird  geschrie- 

written. 

ben  werden. 

fe.  {Perf. 

It  will  have  been 

Scriptum  erit. 

11  aura  ete  ecrit. 

Es  wird  geschrie- 

written. 

ben  worden  seyn. 

THE  INFINITIVE  OK  VERBAL  IN  -ING. 

In  Anglo-Saxon,  and  in  most  inflected  languages,  the  Infinitive  is  formed 
by  a  suffix.  Thus,  A.  S.  gang  (go) ;  Infin.  gang-an  (Germ,  geh-en).  In  semi- 
Saxon  and  Old  English  -an  became  -en, gang-en;  in  later  English  n  was  lost, 
gang-€,  as  in  Old  Fris.  help-a  (to  help),  and  Old  Norse  far-a  (to  fare  or  go)  ; 
and  in  modern  English  the  suffix  disappeared. 

To  is  riot  found  in  A.  S.  before  the  Nom.  and  Ace.  of  the  Infinitive,  and  even 
in  modern  English  it  is  not  inserted  after  the  following  verbs :  may,  can,  shall, 
will,  dare,  let,  bid,  make,  must,  see,  hear,  feel,  do,  need,  and  have.  The  cause 
of  its  later  appearance  may  be  thus  explained.  In  A.  S.  the  Infinitive  was 
declined  as  follows : 


APPENDIX.  207 

N.  and  Ac.  writ-an,  to  write. 
Dat.  to  writ-ann-e,  for  writing. 

This  Dative  is  usually  called  the  Gerund,  and  the  term  Infinitive  is  limited 
to  the  Nom.  and  Accus.  When,  in  later  times,  the  inflectional  endings  were 
lost,  the  origin  of  the  separate  forms  write  and  to  write  was  forgotten,  and  the 
preposition  was  inaccurately  applied  to  all  cases  of  the  Infinitive.  This  con- 
fusion is  first  observed  in  semi- Anglian  writers,  when  the  occasional  omission 
of  the  Dative  suffix  -e  effaced  the  distinction  of  case.  The  Dat.  to  writ-ann-e, 
by  the  omission  of  the  case-ending,  appears  as  to  writ-an,  and  the  Nom.  and 
Accus.  writ-an,  in  consequence  of  this  accidental  resemblance,  improperly  re- 
ceived the  preposition  to. 

In  Old  English  we  sometimes  find  at  instead  of  to  before  the  Infinitive ; 
"  That  es  at  say," i.  e.  "that  is  to  say."  This  is  a  Norse  form, and  is  due  to 
the  Scandinavian  conquerors  of  England. 

The  Nom.  and  Ace.  writ-an  afterwards  assumed  the  forms  writ-en,  writ-in, 
and  finally  writ-ing  ;*  and  this  form  of  the  Infinitive  is  also  known  to  mod- 
ern grammarians  as  the  Gerund.  Hence  the  identity  of  meaning  in  writing 
and  to  write. 

Declension  of  the  Infinitive  Indefinite. 

N.  and  Ac.  (to)  write,  writing. 

Dat.  to  write. 

*  The  existence  of  a  class  of  abstract  nouns  in  -ing(A.S.ung}  doubtless  facilitated 
the  change  from  -in  to  -ing. 


THE    END. 


— 


OVERDUE. 


YB  01648 


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